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UC-NRLF

31 fl37

GIFT OF

MICHAEL REE^E

4/1

PRECIOUS STONES AND GEMS.

(6TH EDITION.)

WORKS BY THE AUTHOR.

" Pearls and Pearling Life;"

" The Great Diamonds of 'the World; "

"Gold; its Legal Regulations and Standards," &c. &c.

" Conditions of Nations,"

by G. F. KOI.B,

with Original Notes and Information
by EDWIN W. STREETER, F.R.G.S.

" Pocket Manual of Precious and Semi-Precious Stones,"

Their Composition, Crystallization, Hardness and
Specific Gravity.

The Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf.

PRECIOUS STONES

AND

GEMS,

THEIR HISTORY, SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS.

EDWIN W. STREETER,

F.R.G.S., V.A.I.

Gold Medallist of the Royal Order of Frederic :
Holder of a Gold Medal from H.M. the King of the Belgians.

31Uu0tratet)

WITH COLOURED PLATES.

SIXTH EDITION,

REVISED AND LARGELY RE-WRITTEN, UP TO DATE.

LONDON:

GEORGE BELL & SONS, YORK STREET
COVENT GARDEN.

1898.

[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.'}
ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL.

^fslT/l§^!^
UNIVERSITY

" I hold every man a debtor to his profeflton, from the
which as men of courfe doe feeke to receive countenance and
profit, fo ought they of duty to endevour themfelves by way of
amends, to be a helpe and ornament thereunto. This is per-
formed in fome degree by the honeft and liberall pra&ice of a
profeffion, when men fhall carry a refpect not to defcend into any
courfe that is corrupt and unworthy thereof, and preferve
themfelves free from the abufes wherewith the fame profeflion is
noted to bee infected ; but more is this performed if a man bee
able to vifite and ftrengthen the roots and foundations of the
fame itfelf, thereby not only gracing it in reputation and dignity,
but alfo amplifying it in perfection and fubftance."

LORD BACON.

CONTENTS.

PAGES.

PREFACE xi

SECTION I.— PRECIOUS STONES IN GENERAL.

CHAPTER I. — DEFINITION OF THE TERM " PRECIOUS
STONE" OR GEM

„ II. — WHERE PRECIOUS STONES ARE
FOUND

,, III. — PRECIOUS STONES AND THEIR USES

IN BYGONE TIMES p* 9

,, IV. — THE WORKING OF PRECIOUS STONES 18

Diamond Cutting ... ... ... 24

The Forms of Precious Stones ... 27

1. The Brilliant 28

2. The Rose ... ... ... 30

3. Indian Cut ... ... ... 30

4. Point Cut 31

5. Briolettes ... 31

6. Portrait Stones 31

7. Step Cut or Graduated Form 31

8. Convex Stones or Cabochon 31

„ V. — THE ENGRAVING AND CARVING OF

PRECIOUS STONES ... 33

Engraved Diamonds .. ... 37

„ VI. — PRECIOUS STONES AS OBJECTS OF

COMMERCE ... ... ... 40

The first known application of

Diamonds for Ornament ... 44

95979

PAGES.

CHAPTER VII.— THE BURNING AND COLOURING OF

PRECIOUS STONES ...... 47

The Burning of Precious Stones 47

The Dyeing of Precious Stones 48

SECTION II.— DIAMONDS.

CHAPTER I. — THE DIAMOND ......... 52

The Origin of the Diamond ... 69

„ II. — AFRICAN DIAMONDS ......... 75

„ III. — AUSTRALIAN DIAMONDS ... ... 96

„ IV. — BORNEO DIAMONDS ......... 102

„ V. — BRAZILIAN DIAMONDS ...... 106

„ VI. — BRITISH GUIANA DIAMONDS ... 117

„ VII. — INDIAN DIAMONDS ......... 118

„ VIII. — RUSSIAN DIAMONDS ......... 133

„ IX. — UNITED STATES' DIAMONDS ... 134

,, X. — COLOURED DIAMONDS, Red and Green 136

„ Blue ...... 137

,, XI. - BORT ... ... ... ... ... 142

„ XII. — CARBONADO ............ 143

The Diamond Drill ...... 144

„ XIII. — VALUE OF ROUGH DIAMONDS ... 146

Cape Rough Diamonds ... ... 147

III.— COLOURED STONES.

CHAPTER I.— THE RUBY ............ 148

Burma Rubies ... ... ... 153

Siam Rubies ... ... ... 157

Ceylon Rubies ... ... ... 159

Rubies from other localities 160

Vll

PAGES.

CHAPTER II.— THE RUBY MINES OF BURMA ... 162

„ III. — THE AUTHOR'S CONNEXION WITH THE

RUBY MINES OF BURMA ... 169

„ IV. — THE SAPPHIRE 179

Siam Sapphires 182

Burma Sapphires ... ... ... 184

Cashmere Sapphires 185

Ceylon Sapphires ... ... .... 187

Montana Sapphires 188

Australian Sapphires ... ... 190

Canadian Corundum ... ... 191

„ V. — STAR STONES 193

„ VI. — SPINEL AND BALAS 195

„ VII. — THE EMERALD 198

The Emeralds of Muzo ... ... 201

Egyptian Emeralds 203

Russian Emeralds ... ... 207

Austrian Emeralds 208

Australian Emeralds ... ... 208

Emeralds of the United States ... 209

„ VIIL— THE TRUE OR ORIENTAL CAT'S EYE

(Chrysoberyl) ... ... ... 211

„ IX. — ALEXANDRITE 214

X.— THE OPAL 216

Hungarian Opals 218

Australian Opals ... ... ... 219

Mexican and Honduras Opals ... 220

Vlll

PAGES.

CHAPTER XL— THE TURQUOISE 221

The Persian Turquoise Mines ... 225

Fossil or Bone Turquoise, &c ... 231

SECTION IV.— SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES.

CHAPTER I.— THE AGATE 235

„ II. — AMAZONITE 239

„ III. — AMBER 240

„ IV. — AMETHYST 244

„ V. — ANDALUSITE 246

„ VI. — AQUAMARINE OR BERYL 247

„ VII. — AVANTURINE 249

„ VIII. — BLOODSTONE ... ... ... ... 250

„ IX. — CARNELIAN 251

„ X. — CHRYSOBERYL ... 253

„ XI. — CHRYSOPRASE ... ... ... 255

„ XII. — CROCIDOLITE 257

„ XIII. — EUCLASE 259

„ XIV. — GARNET, CARBUNCLE, AND CINNAMON

STONE 260

Almandine ... ... ... 261

Pyrope 262

Essonite ... ... ... ... 263

Uwarowite and

Demantoid 264

„ XV. — HEMATITE 266

„ XVI. — HlDDENITE 267

„ XVII.— IOL1TE 268

PAGES.

CHAPTER XVIII.— JADE 269

„ XIX. — JASPER 271

„ XX. — LABRADORITE 273

„ XXI. — LAPIS-LAZULI 275

„ XXII. — MALACHITE ... ... ... 278

„ XXIII — MOONSTONE, SELENITE, AND

SUNSTONE 279

„ XXIV,— MOROXITE 281

„ XXV.— OBSIDIAN 282

„ XXVI. — ORIENTAL ONYX 283

„ XXVII. — PERIDOT OR CHRYSOLITE ... 286

XXVIII— PHENAKITE 288

„ XXIX. — QUARTZ CAT'S EYE 289

,, XXX. — RHODONITE 290

„ XXXI. — ROCK CRYSTAL 291

„ XXXII. — SPHENE 294

„ XXXIII. — SPODUMENE 295

XXXIV.— TOPAZ 296

„ XXXV. — TOURMALINE 299

„ XXXVL— ZIRCON OR JARGOON 303

A CLASSIFICATION OF PRECIOUS

AND SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES 305

APPENDICES :

APPENDIX A — ON THE DISCRIMINATION

OF PRECIOUS STONES 309

„ B — GENERAL REMARKS ON THE

TERM " CARAT,'' RATI, & THOLA 320

INDEX ... ... 322

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR ... ~ ... Frontispiece

CAPE DIAMOND in Matrix ,,. ... facing page 80

CRYSTAL OF YELLOW CAPE DIAMOND ... „ „ 88

BLUE DIAMOND „ ,,136

BURMA RUBY „ „ 152

SAPPHIRE in the Matrix „ ,,184

ROUGH MONTANA SAPPHIRES AND RUBIES „ „ 192

SOUTH AMERICAN EMERALD in Matrix ... ,, ,, 200

CHRYSOBERYL CAT'S EYE, in the rough ... „ ., 211

ALEXANDRITE, in the rough ... ... ... ,, ,,214

QUEENSLAND OPAL in the Matrix „ „ 216

TURQUOISE in the Matrix ... ,, „ 224

CRYSTALS OF QUARTZ, AMETHYST, AQUAMARINE

AND GARNET „ „ 234

CRYSTALS OF BRAZILIAN TOPAZ „ „ 296

PREFACE.

ANY works have been written on the fascin-
ating subject of PRECIOUS STONES AND
GEMS. Authorities on authorities, from re-
mote antiquity to our own day, have been cited
as to their value, their uses, and their properties. But, not-
withstanding all that has been written, I have arrived at
the deliberate conviction, that, as a merchant and dealer
engaged for over fifty years in the purchase and sale of
gems, as well as in their cutting and setting, I might ser -
viceably offer to the Public much information regarding the
nature, the sources, mining, cutting, testing, and value of
these stones. A practical and popular guide to those who
have an interest in ascertaining the genuineness and value
of Precious Stones cannot fail to be generally useful.

As an illustration of the difficulties of the subject, it
may be stated that Prof. A. H. Church, in a lecture
delivered before the Society of Arts on April 6th, 1881,
pointed out a number of errors in the identification of a
collection of Precious Stones which had been exhibited for
years at the South Kensington Museum, although the
official description of these stones had been confided to a
well-known professor in mineralogy and expert in gems. I
have reason to believe that other collections, on the Conti-
nent, if not in this country, contain many specimens of
Precious Stones erroneously named.

Xll

In the division of family jewels much injustice is often
done by persons incompetent to form a correct opinion of
their values. A study of this work may serve to demon-
strate the difficulty of an accurate discrimination. In
all cases, whether for valuation or for probate, it would
be wise to submit the jewels to a practised judge.

A lady had bequeathed to her some family jevvels,
consisting of a Sapphire and Diamond suite. As they
had passed probate several times, and been valued by one
of the first jewellers of the day, there was no doubt in the
mind of the legatee of the genuineness of the Sapphires.
On being applied to in relation to their value, I had the
unpleasant duty of pronouncing the " Sapphires " to be
only paste. Had they been genuine they would have
realised from £30,000 to £40,000.

A gem should be a real possession; capable of affording
pleasure to the wearer and the spectator, and, with fair
usage, retaining an intrinsic and marketable value, undi-
minished by lapse of time, and, if fine, rather increasing
in value than otherwise. I have sometimes seen in wear
gems so scratched that their lustre has been seriously im-
paired, and a suspicion was thus excited in the minds of
wearers and friends that there was a defect in the hard-
ness of the stones, and consequently of their genuineness.
If mounted stones are carelessly kept together and allowed
to rub against each other, the Diamonds will inevitably
scratch all the other stones, and thus disfigure them. It
may be worth while to point out that a small sum ex-
pended in re-polishing such stones would restore their
original lustre, revive the pleasure derived from the posses-
sion of them, and prevent the risk of their being sold by
executors as paste or imitation jewellery.

Xlll

In determining the value of gems, it must be borne
in mind that a perfect stone is never met with ; and
that probably not even ten per cent, of the stones which
are brought into commerce are really of fine quality.

Much study and attention will be required to attain
a thorough knowledge of the properties and appearance of
gems ; but the subject is to most persons of culture one of
singular interest, and with the tests mentioned in the
Appendix (p. 309), a little study will generally enable the
observer to distinguish the true from the false.

With objects such as those referred to above, I am
publishing the present volume, which is the sixth edition
of the original work ; and I hope that in the revised form,
which it now presents, it may be of service to those who
have occasion to handle Precious Stones as a matter
of business, as well as to the wearers of these beautiful
objects.

It must be borne in mind that this book is not
intended to be a strictly scientific treatise, but rather
a practical work for those who, whether in the trade
or among the Public at large, desire to obtain some
knowledge of the general characteristics of Diamonds
and other Precious Stones and Gems.

In conclusion, I trust that the Goldsmiths' Company,
as fathers of the trade, will ere long throw open their
fine suite of rooms in Foster Lane, and will not only
establish a comprehensive library of books bearing on the
study of jewellery, but by giving gratuitous Lectures on
Precious Stones and Precious Metals, will offer that aid to
the younger members of our trade, which is necessary for a
proper understanding of their daily business. This Com-
pany have already done something, but we must look to

them for more aid, by affording favourable opportunities
for exhibitions of fine art jewellery, and by awarding
prizes, similar to those offered by the Turners' Company.
This would give an impetus to study to those engaged in
jewellery-work, and would enable the Public to obtain a
more accurate knowledge of, and to take a deeper interest
in, a subject which has hitherto remained the property of
an exclusive few.

The legacies bequeathed to the Goldsmiths' Company
by the famous goldsmiths and jewellers of the I5th, i6th,
and 1 7th centuries, which have since increased in value to
an extent almost inconceivable, without doubt were in-
tended for some such purposes as those to which I have
referred. I find- that so early as 1415, a celebrated gold-
smith, Sir Drugo Barentine, who was Lord Mayor of
London in 1398, and again in 1408, gave " faire lands" to
this Company. At the present day, when so much public
attention is being devoted to the spread of technical educa-
tion, it behoves us to see that the young goldsmith and
jeweller is not neglected, and that the foreigner may not
take his place in the production of art work, and in the
mounting and setting of gems.

The early editions of this work contained a chapter on
u Celebrated Diamonds," but that portion has been omitted
in recent issues, in consequence of my having written a
special work on the subject. In 1882 I published a volume
of some 320 pages under the title of " The Great Diamonds
of the World ; their History and Romance." This work,
which was most favourably received by the press, is now
out of print

In the earlier editions of my " Precious Stones " there
was also a chapter on te Pearls." Some years ago I was

induced to send my two sons on a visit to the various Pearl
fisheries of the world. The information which I received
from them was of so interesting a character, that my atten-
tion was -forcibly directed to the entire subject of Pearls,
and I soon accumulated far too much matter for introduc-
tion into a general volume on Precious Stones. Under
these circumstances I set myself the task of writing a
separate work, devoted entirely to Pearls. This appeared
in 1886, under the title of "Pearls and Pearling Life;"
and was so well received as to be at present out of print.

It may be noted that the present work refers only to
Nature's Gems, and does not therefore deal with artificial
gems, except in so far as they may throw light on the
probable operations of Nature.

Stimulated by the marked encouragement which my
labours on the subject of Precious Stones, Gems, and Pearls
have received, I have endeavoured to make the volume in
its present form still more worthy of its popularity; and with
this view, have subjected the work to a searching revision.

Thus improved, the present (the sixthj edition is sent
forth in the conscientious belief that it contains an
amount of information on Precious Stones and Gems —
partly scientific and partly practical — not to be found in
any other work.

I am pleased to acknowledge the valuable aid which
I have received from Mr. F. W. Rudler, Curator of the
Museum of Practical Geology, in Jermyn Street, whose
mineralogical knowledge has always been cheerfully placed
at my service when difficulties of a scientific character have
arisen. I am also under obligation to Sir William Crookes,
F.R.S., for scientific advice, and to Mr. North for his
chapter on the modern system of round diamond-cutting ;

X VI

while I am likewise indebted to Mr. Atlay, the manager,
and Mr. Morgan, the engineer, at the Burma Ruby Mines,
for local information, as well as to Mr. Plummer, of Sydney,
who has kept me informed with regard to new discoveries of
Precious stones in Australia

Since the sheets of this work have been printed off,
considerable excitement has been aroused by the occur-
rence of Diamonds in a conglomerate, and in gravels, at
Nullagine, in the Pilbarra gold-fields, North-west Australia,
latitude 2i°s., longitude 120° E. But it remains to be seen
whether the Precious Stones exist there in such quantity,
and of such quality as to render their working a re-
munerative industry. This, in my opinion, is very pro-
blematical, whilst the production of South Africa shows no
diminution.

London,

December, 1898.

WEIGHT BEFORE CUTTING, 186£ CTS. AFTER CUTTING, 1061 CTS.

THE"KOH-I-NUR" BEFORE AND*A*-TER CUTTING.

SECTION I.

PRECIOUS STONES IN GENERAL.

CHAPTER I.

DEFINITION OF THE TERM PRECIOUS STONE OR GEM.

MONG the infinitely diversified products of
Inorganic Nature, there are certain mineral
substances which form a small class by
themselves — standing apart from all others
by the possession of such exceptional characters that they
have always attracted the attention of persons endowed
with taste and refinement. These minerals, distinguished
as Precious Stones, are nine in number, namely : — the
Diamond. Chrysoberyl

Ruby. (True Cat's Eye).

Sapphire. Alexandrite.

Spinel. Opal.

Emerald. Turquoise.

The characters which have commended such stones
in all ages, for purposes of personal ornament, are chiefly
their brilliancy and colour, their durability and rarity. It
is not sufficient, however, that a stone should possess only
one of these characteristics. The mineralogist is familiar
with many stones that are exquisite in colour, yet far too
soft to be used for the*'practical purpose of decoration ; on
the other hand, there may be stones of exceeding hardness

2 Definition of the Term Precious Stone or Gem.

and durability, yet destitute of any beauty of colour or
lustre, and therefore unfitted for personal adornment.
Colour alone is by no means a necessary property in a
precious stone : the Diamond, for example, though pres-
enting in some of its varieties every known tint, may be
absolutely destitute of colour ; nevertheless, it possesses
the power of breaking- up the rays of light which fall
upon it, or pass into its substance, into rainbow-like tints
of transcendent beauty. The Diamond, in fact, unites the
properties of the most opposite elements — combining the
purity of water with the flash of fire.

Precious Stones are frequently known also as Gems.
It should be borne in mind, however, that this term is
sometimes restricted by collectors of works of art to
engraved stones — that is, to camei and intagli, especially
those which have come down to us from classical antiquity
or from mediaeval times. It may, therefore, be convenient,
in order to avoid confusion, to refer to the precious
minerals themselves as Gem-stones rather than as Gems.

It is difficult to arrange the various Precious Stones in
the order of their relative value, since the order is subject
to occasional variation according to the caprice of fashion
or the rarity of the stones. Nevertheless it is believed that
the following scheme, in which all Precious and Semi-
Precious Stones are grouped in five classes, fairly indicates
the relative rank which they take at the present day.

I. The Pearl stands pre-eminent. It is true that this
substance, being the product of a mollusc or shell-fish,
is not strictly a mineral. It is, however, so intimately
related in many ways with the family of true Precious
Stones that it properly claims a place in any classification
such as that under discussion. The Pearl has increased so
greatly in value in recent times, that if one of a certain size

Definition of the Term Precious Stone or Gem, 3

and weight was worth from £60 to £So twenty years ago,
the same Pearl is now worth from £500 to £600.

II. In the second class, and therefore at the head of
the group of Precious Stones proper, stands beyond all
doubt the Burma Ruby.

III. Then comes the Diamond. Many readers may
be surprised to find the Diamond taking so subordinate a
rank ; but the time has gone by when this stone could
claim a supreme position in the market. At the present day
certain mines in South Africa produce Diamonds of pure
water, rivalling the finest stones that were ever brought
to light from the mines of India, Brazil, or elsewhere.

IV. In the fourth class comes first the Emerald, then
the Sapphire, the Oriental Cat's Eye, the Alexandrite, and
afterwards the Precious Opal.

V. In the fifth class may be placed under semi-
precious stones the Peridot, the Hyacinth or Jacinth, the
Topaz, the Zircon, and some 39 other varieties. Some of
these are so beautiful that they deserve a more extended
use in the arts of jewelry than they enjoy at present.

That branch of Mineralogy which deals with Precious
Stones is known in Germany under the special name of
Edelsteinkunde. But neither in this country nor in France
does it possess any distinctive title. Perhaps it may be
best designated in English as " The Science of Jewelry."
So far from being a trivial or frivolous study, the Science
of Gems and Jewelry implies a knowledge of all the
properties and peculiarities of Precious Stones, such as
their physical and chemical properties ; the relation they
bear to other minerals ; their shape and structure ; their
defects and impurities. This science must, therefore
include a competent knowledge of Crystallography, Physics,
Chemistry and Geology. Such knowledge in its entirety

4 Definition of the Term Precious Stone or Gem.

cannot be expected to be found outside the laboratory or
the cabinet of the mineralogist. There are, however,
several comparatively simple means of great value for
the identification of Precious Stones, and as these admit
of application without any profound knowledge of
mineralogy they are given in an Appendix to the
present work.

CHAPTER II.

WHERE PRECIOUS STONES ARE FOUND.

>T is a familiar fact that Organic Nature does not
present an equal development of life in every
part of the world. Each country — or at least
each zone of climate — has its own fauna and flora — its
peculiar assemblage of animals and plants. No one needs
to be reminded that the animals and plants of the tropics
are widely different from those of temperate zones, while
these again differ from those of the Polar regions. But
when we turn to the Inorganic world, we fail to detect any
similar laws of distribution. Climate, so far as we know, is
without sensible effect on the development of minerals
and rocks. Many minerals are common to the hottest and
the coldest parts of the world ; yet they present no
discernible difference whether brought from tropical or
from Polar regions. It is true that occasionally there are
slight local differences in crystallization, or in other
physical characters, sufficient to enable an experienced
mineralogist to say at once from what district a given
mineral has been obtained. But these trivial differences
are due rather to geological than to geographical conditions,
and climatic influences have nothing whatever to do with
the distribution of minerals.

Nor is this general rule in any way broken by those
exceptional minerals which we distinguish as Precious
Stones. It was a pardonable supposition of ancient

6 Where Precious Stones are Found.

writers on gems that these beautiful productions of the
mineral world should be mainly confined to tropical coun-
tries. What more natural than the conjecture that those
favoured regions which gave birth to gaily-coloured birds
and gorgeous butterflies and flowers of surpassing love-
liness should also produce minerals of the rarest brilliancy
and beauty ! Yet such a supposition is purely fanciful.

Precious Stones, in truth, are not confined to definite
geographical limits or to particular climates, but occur
abundantly and in about equal perfection in all latitudes.
Nor do the gem stones of one country necessarily differ
from those of other parts of the world. The Diamonds
of India, for example, are hardly, if at all, to be distin-
guished, when polished, from those found in the Ural
mountains, or in Brazil, or at the Jagersfontein Mine in
South Africa. The Emerald of New Granada, again, is
much the same as that which is found in Queen Cleopatra's
mines in Upper Egypt or at Katharineburg, in the Urals.
The Beryl of Siberia has proved no unequal rival to that
of Brazil, and the Amethysts of the Bavarian Palatinate
equal those found in the most favoured spots of South
America.

It is not, indeed, the geographical position which
determines the difference between the relative values of the
sites. Nevertheless it is an acknowledged fact that in India,
Burma, Ceylon, Siam, Brazil, and in some of the Western
States of America, a greater abundance of them has been
discovered than elsewhere.

The Ancients were wont to ascribe the pre-eminence
of certain regions in which Precious Stones are found to
evaporation from the earth which would obviously be
more intense in tropical countries. It was a supposition
pardonably fanciful, that the sunburnt tropics were more

Where Precious Stones are Found. j

favourable to the blossoms of the inorganic world, than the
dark skies of the north.

But although modern researches have shewn that
Precious Stones are not limited to any defined geographical
area, their distribution is yet in a measure circumscribed,
inasmuch as they are not met with in all mountain ranges,
nor in all geological formations. The most valuable are
found in such ranges as are composed of rocks considered
to be among the most ancient in the world — in rocks
composed of granite, gneiss, porphyry, mica-schist, and
crystalline limestone. Sometimes they occur imbedded in
the mass of the rock ; at other times, protruding, as it
were, from the surface arid jutting forth into free cavities,
When they are thus found in the very rocks where they
were originally formed they are said to be in their
primitive bed.

Many however, are found far from their primal home,
in a derivative or secondary deposit, in diluvial or alluvial
soils, in the gravels or sands of river-beds. This last mode
of occurrence is perhaps the most frequent for the finer
Precious Stones. Far removed from their native home
by the force of heavy rains and rushing torrents, they have
been loosened and carried onwards, rounded by friction
against the debris with which they have been accompanied
in their course. It is a strange fact that those stones which
have been washed in the currents or deposited in river-beds,
are generally found to be the finest. Possibly this may be
explained by a process of natural selection which has
weeded out the faulty stones, and left only those that, by
their superior hardness, could survive the rough usage to
which they have been subjected. It is their hardness and
density that have not only preserved them from destruction,
but have enabled many to retain traces of their original

8 Where Precious Stones are Found.

crystalline form. The Pearl, however, being composed
only of carbonate of lime, when travelling with hard
stones, would in time suffer complete destruction.

In Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, Brazil, Australia,
Siberia, South Africa, Borneo, and parts of the United
States — from which countries the great majority of our
Precious Stones are obtained— they commonly occur in
these derivative beds ; and it is interesting to notice how
various kinds of Precious Stones are found in company in
the same locality, forming as it were a noble society of
Gems, rendered still more illustrious by their association
with the noble metals — gold and platinum. It is note-
worthy, however, that the majority of the South African
Diamonds are unearthed from a rock which fills certain
volcanic pipes and is considered by some mineralogists to
represent the matrix in which the stones have been
developed, though it must be confessed that much can be
said against such a view.

The habitat, or native home of each Precious Stone,
and the conditions under which it occurs, will be specially
indicated in this work in the description of the individual
gems.

CHAPTER III.

PRECIOUS STONES AND THEIR USES IN BYGONE TIMES.

I STORY and tradition testify to the fact that
Precious Stones were valued and preserved
thousands of years ago. In India, where the
most costly were chiefly found, this was
especially the case. Other lands, it is true, possessed
Precious Stones, and handed them down from generation
to generation, but probably knew less of their true worth
or nature. Their transparency and dazzling beauty, their
hardness and crystalline forms, must naturally have always
excited wonder, and induced men to treasure them as
amulets, if not to use them as personal ornaments. We
know that in the time of Solomon, the love of grace and
luxury induced the rich to desire the possession of Precious
Stones, and even to seek for them in foreign lands.

In Egypt, in ancient times, many stones were worked
as scarabaean gems ; and we know that among the Jews
the robes of the High Priest were set with Precious Stones.
It is often difficult, in reading an ancient author, to know
precisely what stone he intends to indicate, and ordinary
translations of technical words are by no means to be
trusted. This remark applies, for example, to the names
of the stones of the breast-plate of the Jewish High Priest,
as rendered in our Authorized Version. The names which
the Hebrews gave to these stones indicate that they derived
their knowledge of them from the Egyptians, who in
common with other ancient races, knew but little of what

io Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times.

we understand by Mineralogy. As regards India, Strabo
and Pliny tell us that gold and Precious Stones were used
for personal adornment, and that drinking cups were set
with Emeralds, Beryls and Rubies.

From the East the Phoenicians, in their universal
traffic, exported costly stones as well as ivory, with Tyrian
purple and other stuffs, which were known as early as the
Homeric period. The songs of Homer contain references
to valuable bright stuffs and stones which served for
ornaments, without mentioning their special names or
qualities. For instance " The witch puts on her costly
robe and brilliant earrings ; " but their nature is not
defined. Eurymachus gives to Penelope an exquisitely
worked necklace of gold, ornamented with light amber,
bright as the sun. Eurydamas also gives magnificent
earrings, such as must have been worn by high-born ladies
and princesses in Homeric times.

Besides the Precious Stones recorded in Genesis and
Exodus, the precious Onyx and the Sapphire are mentioned
by Job, with the Coral, Pearls, Rubies, and Topaz of
Ethiopia; and the place in which some were found appears
to have been known by the patriarch of Uz ; " He putteth
forth His hand upon the rock : He cutteth out rivers
among the rocks, and His eye seeth every precious thing."

Six or seven hundred years before the Christian Era,
the Greeks were acquainted with a multitude of Precious
Stones, and the rulers in Greece and neighbouring lands
wore ornamental and signet rings set with gems, such as
Ruby and Sapphire. The famous ring of Polycrates
(died B.C. 522) was doubtless as valuable to him for its
costly stones and workmanship, as for any hidden virtue
which it is said to have possessed.

In the beginning of the 5th century, B.C., we find

Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. II

among the Greeks, a didactic History of Precious Stones ;
which indicates that their knowledge of them was not
superficial.

Onomacritus, a Priest and founder of Hellenic
mysteries, 500 years B.C., treated of Precious Stones and
their mysterious power. Commencing with the bright
transparent crystal, he says, " Whoso goes into the Temple
with this in his hand may be quite sure of having his
prayer granted ; as the gods cannot withstand its power."
Further, he states, that when this stone is laid upon dry
wood, so that the sun's rays may shine upon it, there will
soon be seen smoke, then fire, then a bright flame- This
flame was known as holy fire^ and it was believed that no
sacrifice was so acceptable to the gods as when offered
through its agency. In like manner Onomacritus sang the
praises and supernatural power of the Agate, the Topaz,
the spring-green Jasper, Amber, Chrysolite, Coral and Opal.

The superstitions attached to these and other stones
were not confined to the Ancients. Even in this enlight-
ened age, Eugenie, the late Empress of France, would not
wear a precious Opal because it was said to bring ill luck
to the wearer. Queen Victoria, on the contrary, having
no such superstition presented each of her daughters, on
her marriage, with a parure of Opals and Diamonds.

After the early Greek period the knowledge of
Precious Stones advanced. Herodotus must have had
accurate acquaintance with many of them. He mentions,
besides the Emerald in Polycrates' ring, signet rings, such
as that of Darius ; and speaks of the so-called Emerald
column in the Temple of Hercules at Tyre, which at night
gave out a wonderful light. Plato mentions the Sard,
Jasper, and Emerald. The Adamas, Amber, and
Loadstone were not unknown to him ; and he shows some

12 Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times.

knowledge of the origin of both common and Precious
Stones, and of their natural forms.

It is certain that Aristotle had knowledge of a still
larger number of Precious Stones, and that he was
acquainted with some of their special properties. His
scholar, Theophrastus, has left us a small work on this
subject. The little treatise of Theophrastus, Ile/j/ r<TV
At#wv, was written before the year 300 B.C., and notwith-
standing its brevity, is of special interest as being the
earliest Greek work devoted to Mineralogy which has
come dov/n to modern times. It is true there exists a
curious Greek poem on Precious Stones, Ai#i/<a, by the
pseudo-Orpheus, but this is of very little value from a
scientific point of view, and its date is a matter on which
the opinion of scholars is divided.

But though we have no other early Greek treatises
on minerals, we find references to Precious Stones occa-
sionally interspersed through the pages of other writers.
Didorus mentions the Topaz found in the Serpent Island
of the Arabian Sea, probably what we now call Chrysolite.
Dionysius Periegetes refers to the clear and brilliant
Diamond, the beautiful Asterios (a star-stone, either.
Sapphire or Ruby) that glitters like a star, the Lychnis
with the colour of fire, the blue Beryl, the dull Jasper, the
pure bluish and greenish Topaz, and the lovely Amethyst
with its soft, purple sheen.

In the time of Alexander the Great, and still more so
in the time of the luxurious Diadochi, there was a great
increase in the use of Precious Stones as articles of luxury.
They were used not only for signet rings, but also in
ornamenting many articles of use and luxury, being
set round the feet and other parts of the drinking vessels
and candelabra of the period.

Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. 13

After the Romans became possessed of the treasures
of Asia and Africa, they probably gained a much fuller
knowledge of Precious Stones. The elder Pliny must have
been better informed than his predecessors as to the places
where gems were found. From him also we gain most of
our knowledge of the views of the Ancients as to Precious
Stones. During this period the luxury of Rome in respect
to Precious Stones was enormous. The Emperors adorned
their robes with jewels of immense value. Paulina, the
wife of Caligula, covered her dress entirely with Emeralds
and Pearls of untold wealth. Pliny says " we drink out of
a mass of gems, and our drinking vessels are formed of
Emeralds." A little later they began to mount their sacred
pictures in frames set round with gems. Constantino
entered Rome in a chariot of gold, adorned with Precious
Stones, which are described as having sent forth brilliant
rays of light. In his time the Royal Crown was first set
about with similar gems, a custom which has been continued
to the present day.

Passing on to the Christian Era we find among writers
upon Precious Stones, that Isidorus, Bishop of Seville, in
the year 630 A.D., takes a prominent place. He classified
gems according to their colour. In the eleventh century
Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, wrote a Lapidarium, or Latin
poem on stones, of which a Norman-French version is
also known. A century later brought forth a really scien-
tific treatise by Mohammed Ben Mansur — a work marked
by great acumen, and evidently the result of an extensive
acquaintance with the stones which he describes. Coming
down to later times, attention may be specially directed
to the treatise De Geimnis et Lapidibus, written in 1609
by a Dutch physician, Anselmus de Boot, whose name is
better known in its Latinised form of Boethius.

14 Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times.

Most of the old writers on Precious Stones occupied
themselves to a large extent with the study of the occult
virtues which they attributed to these substances.

The properties ascribed to Precious Stones in the time
of Isidorus were extremely curious. They were said to
have the power of conferring upon their happy possessors a
host of blessings — health, beauty, riches, honour, good
fortune, and influence. No wonder that men and women
carried them about their person, prizing them as amulets.

Precious Stones were also supposed to have some
connection with the planets and the seasons, and a special
gem was worn for each month. The following is a list of
appropriate Stones :

IN JANUARY ... THE ALEXANDRITE.

This gem holds its sway over the lives
of those whose birthday falls in January
and insures to them the undying devotion
of the object of their choice.

„ FEBRUARY ... THE AMETHYST.

To this stone's reputed power of pre-
venting intoxication, it adds that of
engendering a deep rooted love.

„ MARCH ... THE SAPPHIRE.

The type of constancy, virtue and truth.

„ APRIL THE DIAMOND.

Typifies purity and preserves peace.

„ MAY THE EMERALD.

Possesses unconquerable power to com-
bat sin and trial.

„ JUNE THE CHRYSOPRASE.

Emblematic of eloquence and good luck.

Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. 15

IN JULY THE RUBY.

Type of Charity, Dignity and Divine
Power.

„ AUGUST ... THE PERIDOT.

Emblematic of Modesty and Chastity.
„ SEPTEMBER ... THE CHRYSOLITE.

Confers the power of gladdening the

heart.
„ OCTOBER ... THE OPAL.

Typifies Hope, Innocence and Purity.
„ NOVEMBER ... THE CHRYSOBERYL CAT'S EYE.

Warns the wearer of approaching

danger.

„ DECEMBER ... THE TURQUOISE.

Emblem of prosperity, and the cheerer
of the soul.

The Twelve Apostles, also, were represented in me-
diaeval times by gems, called Apostle- Stones, viz. : —

1. Jasper. — This hard and solid stone representing the

Church, was the emblem of Peter.

2. Sapphire. — The bright-blue Sapphire was emblematic

of the heavenly faith of Andrew.

3. Emerald. — The Emerald, of the pure and gentle John.

4. Chalcedony. — The White Chalcedony, of James.

5. Sardonyx. — The friendly Sardonyx, of Philip.

6. Carnelian. — The red Carnelian, of martyr Bartholomew.

7. Chrysolite. — The Chrysolite, pure as sunlight, of

Matthias.

8. Beryl. — The indefinite Beryl, of the doubting Thomas.

9. Topaz. — The Topaz, of the delicate James the

younger.

1 6 Precious Stones and then uses in bygone times.

10 Chrysoprase. — The Chrysoprase of the serene and
trustful Tliaddeus.

1 1. Amethyst. — The Amethyst, of Matthew the Apostle.

12. Hyacinth. — The pink Hyacinth of the sweet-tempered

Simeon of Can a.

The Alphabet has been formed of the initials of
Precious and Semi- Precious Stones and is still in use to
some extent at the present day. The nature of this
alphabet is exemplified by the following table : —

Transparent Opaque.

A. Amethyst, Agate, or
Alexandrite. Avanturine.
Almandine, or

Amber

B. Beryl.

C. Chrysoberyl,
Carbuncle,
Cairngorm,
Cinnamon Stone, or
Cymophane.
Diamond.
Emerald.
Felspar.

Garnet.

D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

Bloodstone.
Cacholong,
Carnelian,
Chrysoprase, or
Cat's Eye.

Hyacinth, or

Hiddenite.
I. Idocrase,

lolite

Jargoon.

K. Kyanite.

L. Lynx-sapphire.

M. Moonstone, or

Moroxite.

Diaspore.
Egyptian Pebble.
Firestone.
Granite.
Heliotrope.

Jasper, or
Jet.

Krokidolite.
Lapis-lazuli.
Malachite, or
Marcasite

Precious Stones and their uses in bygone times. 17

Natrolite.

Nephrite

Opal.

Onyx.

Pyrope, or

Porphyry, or

Peridot

Plasma.

Quartz.

Quartz-agate.

Ruby.

Rose-quartz.

Sapphire,

Sard, or

Spinel, or

Sardonyx.

Sphene.

Topaz, or

Turquoise.

Tourmaline.

Uranite.

Ultra-marine

Vesuvianite.

Verd-antique.

Water-sapphire.

Wood-opal.

Xanthite.

Xylotile.

Zircon.

Zurlite.

If, for instance, it were required to represent the
word Alice in a ring, the jeweller might choose Amethyst,
Lynx-sapphire, Idocrase, Chrysoberyl and Emerald ; or
any other group of stones whose initial letters spell
the name,

CHAPTER IV.

THE WORKING OF PRECIOUS STONES.

jLTHOUGH Professor Ruskin, in an elo-
quent lecture delivered many years ago at
the London Institution, advised the ladies to
wear uncut Precious Stones, it may be safely said that the
eccentric advice of the learned professor will never be
followed, either by the public at large, or by those con-
noisseurs who appreciate the true beauty of a noble mineral.
It is undeniable that the qualities for which Precious Stones
are most prized, — their lustre, transparency, refraction, and
dispersion of light, — may be to some extent visible even
in their rough state ; but in order to enhance these ad-
vantages, and to render them more attractive to lovers of
beauty, the Diamond must be subjected to cleaving, bruting,
cutting, and polishing, while coloured stones must in like
manner be submitted to the art of the skilful lapidary, who
brings out all the brilliancy and colour of the stone, while
concealing its imperfections.

The cleaving, bruting, cutting, and polishing appertain
to the art of the diamond-cutter, whose aim is so to
manipulate the rough stone, as to produce with the least
possible loss of weight, a regular, or symmetrical form,
bounded by smooth, brilliant surfaces, called facets. The
subsequent cutting of designs or mottoes in the polished
stone belongs to the art of the stone-engraver.

It does not appear that the Ancients appreciated the
art of the lapidary as highly as we do. They preferred

The Working of Precious Stones. 19

weight to brilliancy, and size to effectiveness. They would
have been horrified to sacrifice eighty carats of a stone
weighing 186 carats — as was done in the case of the Koh-
i-nur — merely to enhance its effectiveness as a gem. To-
day, on the contrary, we should be satisfied with a stone of
eighty-six carats, if by losing the 100 we could obtain
nearly a perfect gem. Accordingly, we see that the ancient
lapidaries were generally content to rub down the angles,
polish the surfaces, and retain, to a great extent, the natural
shape each stone possessed when discovered.

The clasp of the regal mantle of Charlemagne, in the
French National Collection, is set with Diamonds which
have the natural planes of the octahedron only partially
polished. In the year 1290 there was formed in Paris, a
guild of gem- polishers and cutters, and in 1373 the art of
diamond polishing was practised in Nuremberg ; the
mode of procedure is, however, unknown to us. It was
not till a subsequent date, that the famed " table-cutters ''
of Nuremberg formed themselves, in conjunction with the
stone-engravers, into a regular guild. One of their rules
was that apprentices to the lapidary's and engraver's art
should be bound to serve for five or six years, under the
pretext of the great difficulty and responsibility of their
mystery, before they might venture to set up in business
for themselves.

On Church ornaments of unascertained periods, but
undoubtedly of great antiquity, Diamonds have been found
having upper table-like surfaces with four polished borders,
and the lower sides cut as four-sided prisms or pyramids.

In the inventory of the jewels of Louis, Duke of
Anjou, exhibited in the years 1360 — 1368, the following
cut Diamonds are mentioned : — (i) a Diamond of a shield
shape, from a reliquary ; (2) two small Diamonds, from

20 The Working of Precious Stones.

the same reliquary, with three flat-cut, four-cornered facets,
on both sides ; (3) a small Diamond in the form of a round
mirror, set in a salt-cellar ; (4) a thick Diamond, with four
facets ; (5) a Diamond, in the form of a lozenge ; (6) an
eight-sided, and (7) a six-sided plain Diamond.

In the beginning of the fifteenth century, there are
found traces of the art of Diamond-polishing in Paris, and
there still exists in that capital a cross-way called La
Courarie, where the Diamond-workers resided more than
two hundred and fifty years ago.

In 1407, Diamond-cutting made great strides under
Hermann, an able artist. The Duke of Burgundy gave a
magnificent dinner at the Louvre to the King of France
and his Court, and the noble guests received eleven Dia-
monds set in gold. These gems were but imperfectly cut,
yet with the intention and desire of heightening the play
of light, and thus rendering the gift more gratifying to the
guests they were intended to honor.

In 1434 Guttenberg learnt gem-cutting and polishing
of Andreas Drytzehen of Strasbourg. It is known, too,
that in the year 1590, a Frenchman, Claudius de la Croix,
went to Nuremberg, and carried on the cutting of Rose
Garnets.

It was in Bruges, in 1456, that Louis de Berquem
who had lived long in Paris, made known his famous
discovery of a mode of cutting the Diamond into regular
facets. This increased the play of light considerably, and
wrought so thorough a revolution in the jeweller's art, that
his contemporaries regarded him as the father of Diamond-
polishing and cutting. Just ten years afterwards, a guild
of diamond -cutters and lapidaries was established in
Bruges.

In 1475, Louis de Berquem made his first experiment

The Working of Precious Stones. 21

with the object of obtaining the perfect cut, on three rough '
Diamonds of extraordinary dimensions, sent to him by
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy.

No. i., historically known as the " Beau Sancy," was a
thick stone, cut all over with facets. The author has had
this stone examined and many models of it taken, and his
impression is that the stone commonly called the " Beau
Sancy" is the work of an Indian lapidary.

No. 2 passed into the hands of Pope Sixtus IV.

No. 3, a badly proportioned stone, shaped as a triangle,
was set in a ring, which, as a symbol of constancy,
represented two hands clasped. Strange to say, it fell into
the hands of that most faithless and inconstant of kings,
Louis XI. It was presented to him by the Duke of
Burgundy. Robert de Berquem relates that his grand-
father, Louis, received from Charles the Bold 3000 ducats
for his work.

Of Louis' pupils, many went to Antwerp, some to
Amsterdam, and others to Paris. In the last named city
the art of diamond-cutting did not flourish at once, owing
possibly to want of encouragement and to lack of raw
material. It made some progress, however, under the
powerful influence of Cardinal Mazarin, who ordered
twelve of the thickest Diamonds of the French crown to
be re-cut, and thenceforward they received the name of
" the twelve Maz-arins." No one knows what ultimately
became of these costly stones. In the inventory of the
French Crown Jewels, in 1774, there is only one, with the
number 349, to which the name "tenth Mazarin " is given.
This was a four-cornered Brilliant, with somewhat obtuse
angles, of pure water, weighing sixteen carats, and valued
at ^"2000.

Owing to the patronage of the Cardinal, and the taste

22 The Working of Precious Stones.

for Diamonds which prevailed among the higher classes in
France, the art prospered in the seventeenth century.

Towards the end of the same century, Vincenzio
Bruzzi, of Venice, experimented on coloured Diamonds,
with the view of extracting the colour and leaving the
Diamond white. This art is practised to some extent even
at the present day, but with little success, as the colour
always returns after a greater or less interval. De Boot,
who wrote in 1609, asserts that his patron, the Emperor
Rudolph II., had obtained, by the distillation of antimony,
a secret preparation with which he was enabled to remove
not only the colour but the flaws of imperfect Diamonds.

About the close of the seventeenth century, Paris
possessed seventy-five diamond cutters in full work, and
amongst them not a few very clever masters. One Jarlet
cut a Diamond for the Russian Crown, of 90 carats weight.
The prospect which seemed now to promise great things
for the diamond cutters at Paris was, however, but short-
lived ; it soon became overclouded, and before the end of
the century, the trade was well-nigh extinct. In 1775
there were only seven masters left in that city, and these
gained but a scanty and precarious living. The re-cutting
of old Diamonds was a thing of the past, and there were
over 3832 carats of rough stones waiting to be cut. In
consequence of the political troubles and the social disorder
which closed in blood at this memorable epoch, the
Diamonds had to be sent from Paris to be cut in Antwerp.

London has always had lapidaries and diamond cutters
of great ability, and the " Old English cutting " (so termed
in the trade) is looked upon as the type of the best work-
manship ; yet, as the competition of skilled hands in
Holland vastly exceeds that in England, the labour is less
expensive for diamond-cutting, and the art is more

The Working of Precious Stones. 23

cultivated there than here. The English lapidaries are
unrivalled in the cutting of coloured stones, but in the
case of Diamonds, we must yield the palm to the Dutch.
Of late years, however, the art of diamond-cutting has
been revived here, and a stone can be cut in England
to-day quite as well as in Holland.

When Portugal was at the height of her power, a very
extensive trade in Precious Stones was carried on in that
country by the Jews, and the lapidaries of Lisbon, who
were also Jews, developed their art to a state of perfection
never, perhaps, surpassed ; many of the old Lisbon-cut
gems exhibiting a beauty of workmanship that taxes all
the skill of our first lapidaries to rival. But the lapidary
and merchant, however wealthy, were powerless to hold
their own against religious fanaticism and bigotry > and the
expulsion of the Jews from Portugal in the latter part of
the sixteenth century, drove the lapidary and his art from
Lisbon.

The exiled gem-merchants and lapidaries found an
asylum in Holland, carrying their trade with them, in the
same manner as the Huguenots brought silk-weaving to
England. Since that time Amsterdam has been the
great centre of the Diamond cutting trade, and remains so
to the present day. It is said that out of 35,000 Jewish
inhabitants of Amsterdam, about one-third are in some
way or other connected with this business.

In India the stones are very imperfectly cut by the
natives, often being quite irregular, and cut on one side
only. The size and weight of the stones are valued there
rather than the artistic cut. In workman's language the
stones cut in India are " lumpy," and it is easier to cut a
Diamond from the rough than to re-cut one of these
lumpy stones.

24 The Working of Precious Stones.

DIAMOND CUTTING.

The Diamond, the hardest of all known bodies, can
only be manipulated by means of powdered Diamond.
This powder is prepared generally from bort, or faulty
Diamonds, and from the refuse in cleaving and cutting,
which, being put into a mortar of hardened steel, is
pounded until it is fine enough for use.

The industry of Diamond cutting has been more or
less in the hands of the Jews for the past 200 years. This
may be attributed to the scientific and elaborate system
they established of naming every facet on the Diamond
and training the workman to detect at once the exact grain
of that particular facet. They divide the work into four
branches, assigned to the cutter, polisher, setter and cleaver,
and these all work into each other's hands.

As an example we will take the cutter first. All the
rough stones pass through his hands. His first care is to
examine every stone minutely for flaws and imperfections,
enabling him, to decide in which way the Diamond will
give the best attainable results. This done he takes a
cutter box having two iron pegs for levers, and affixing two
Diamonds on the ends of two boxwood sticks, made
specially for this purpose, he proceeds to cut the Diamond
on the old fashioned principle of " Diamond cut Diamond,"
technically known as "bruting." This is practically con-
tinued throughout the process, as there are no tools made
of sufficient hardness to make any impression on the
Diamond. Having decided which way to obtain the best
result, the operator proceeds to cut the rough stone into a
two-point, four-point, wass, drop briolette, rondelle, or table
stone. We will now follow the first mentioned of these,
the two-point, in its passage through the other branches of
the trade and the system carried out to the finish.

The Working of Precious Stones. 25

The stone having been cut to the satisfaction of the
master, is handed to the setter who selects a suitable sized
brass cup, fills it with a mixture of lead and tin, and melts
it over the gas flame. Having worked the solder to its
proper shape, he places the Diamond in the centre,
leaving only a very small part exposed. A mark is made
on the solder before it becomes thoroughly set, and then
the stone is passed on to the polisher. By the mark made
on the solder the latter knows at once the precise run of
the grain and the way in which it will polish to the best
advantage on the mill. The first operation is making the
" table " of the Diamond. This done it is handed back
to the setter that he may take it out of the solder and reset
it for the operation of making the first corner, called the
flat corner. The solder is again marked to indicate to the
polisher the run of the grain of this particular corner, and
so the process is continued until the Diamond is polished
throughout Every facet has a name, and every name
denotes the grain, and how to polish that particular facet.
The polisher uses a mill or circular disc, composed of soft
porous iron, so that as the Diamond is polished away in
the form of dust it enters the pores of the iron, the result
being that we have the Diamond cutting the Diamond.
Without the assistance of the Diamond dust the iron would
not make the slightest impression on the Diamond.

The next branch we have to deal with is the cleaving^
an important part, but as only about 25 per cent, of the
Diamonds found require cleaving the cleaver has not so
much work to do as either the cutter or polisher. His work
consists in taking a piece off a Diamond where it is too
long, or making it into small stones where it is badly flawed,
thus taking away all the impurities and defects, and leaving
the sound parts to be cut and polished. To cleave a

26 The Working of Precious Stones,

Diamond he commences by fastening it to the end of a
specially made stick with strong cement. A very sharp
piece of Diamond, called a sharp, is similarly attached to
another stick, and with it a V-snaPed incision is made in
the Diamond at the place where the part is to be removed.
Placing a blunt knife in the incision and giving it a sharp
tap with an iron cleaver's bar, the fragment immediately
breaks off, if the incision is truly made and exactly on
the grain. These fragments are cut and polished, and
sold as Rose Diamonds. This is a distinct business from
Diamond-cutting, but is carried out on exactly the same
lines, the workmen requiring about the same length of time
to learn either business, namely about six or seven years.

The great home for Diamond cutting is still Amster-
dam, although, in order to diminish the price of cutting,
Germany and Switzerland have also been tried — especially
the latter, Switzerland being the great home for female
labour ; but the result has not been satisfactory, as will be
seen by the following statement

A parcel of rough stones coming from the Cape was
divided into three equal portions of 100 carats each, and
sent to each of the above-named countries. The cost of
labour in Germany was only is. 6d. per carat below that of
Amsterdam, yet the stones lost so much by the cutting
that their value was less by icxy. per carat ; and in like
manner those of Switzerland, were 2Os. per carat lower in
value.

Only highly skilled and very honest artizans are
entrusted with the cutting of large Diamonds. When the
Diamond passes from the cutter's hands it is by no means
perfect. The lustre and transparency for which it is so
much valued are only fully developed in the hands of the
polisher.

The Working of Precious Stones. 27

The polishing rocms of some of the great factories in
Amsterdam, are well worthy of a visit.

The grinding and polishing of the Diamond are effected
on flat N wheels propelled by steam-power, which make
about 2000 revolutions in a minute. Before these silently
revolving discs you will see men so intent upon their
work that they have eyes for nothing else ; for, notwith"
standing the perfection of the machinery, the skill of the
workmen remains of primal importance. It is with their
fingers and thumbs that they adjust the points, edges and
facets of the Diamond with extreme accuracy, keeping
them constantly moist with Diamond dust and olive oil.
The thumbs of the workmen being used continually, and
with much force, not unfrequently become enlarged.

The lapidary, who is occupied with the cutting and
polishing of other precious stones than the Diamonds, or
who is engaged simply upon Semi-Precious Stones, arranges
his work much in the same manner as the Diamond-cutter,
but he uses other means for the cutting and polishing,
according to the nature of the stone to be worked. These
special means will be noticed, where necessary, under the
description of each particular stone.

THE FORMS OF PRECIOUS STONES.
The beauty of a cut or finished stone depends so much
upon the form and position of its facets, that a moderately
fine stone, well cut and polished, is of far greater value than
a large one less artistically worked. It sometimes happens
that the lapidary receives a stone of very unfortunate
shape ; his duty will, therefore, be to take all possible care
to preserve its size ; and, hiding its faults, give it such a

28 The Working of Precious Stones.

form as shall send it forth with the greatest weight con-
sistent with beauty and brilliancy.

In selecting Precious Stones you must mentally ask
yourself the following questions : Is their transparency
conspicuous ? Are they like dew-drops hanging from a
damask rose leaf ; are they of pure water, and do they
possess the power of refraction in a high degree ? Or, are
they transparent and coloured ; and, if the latter, have they
a play of colour ? Lastly, have they notable imperfections?

Transparent stones must not be too thick, for either
they will refract light too strongly, or impede the light
passing through, and thus rob the stone of its brilliancy
and fire.

In colourless stones, the width and thickness which
they must have are, as a rule, determinate ; whilst in
coloured ones they are regulated by the intensity and
thoroughness of the colour.

The workman is compelled sometimes to give the
stone a form other than that intended by nature, in
consequence of flaws and clefts, and in order to remedy
irregularities in the stone. This is most frequently the
case in large stones.

Different forms of cutting receive different names,
which are often extended to the finished stone itself. For
instance, if you hear of a " Brilliant " or " Rose " you know
at once that the first is a Diamond with a table and culet,
whilst the second is only a low pyramidal stone, facetted
over the top, but with the under surface quite flat.

i.— THE BRILLIANT.

This is the most favourable form for enhancing the
play of colour, and is therefore most effective for all Precious

The Working of Precious Stones. 29

and most of the Semi-Precious Stones. It is said to be the
crowning invention in the art of diamond-cutting. It was
due originally to Vincenzio Peruzzi, of Venice ; a city
which was, in his time, the chief seat of the Diamond
trade.

As a Brilliant, the Diamond has almost the form of
two cones united by their bases ; the upper one being so
truncated as to give a large plane surface at the top, while
the lower one is much less truncated, and in fact, terminates
almost in a point. The stone being set with the broad
plane uppermost, produces the effect of great depth of
light, and its many facets increase what is termed its play
of light ; the density of the material naturally intensifying
the refractive power, and thereby increasing its brilliancy.
The plane surface at the top is called the table ; the bottom
plane is called the culet or culette ; the junction of the
upper truncated pyramid with the lower is the girdle ; and
the lower pointed portion the pavilion, Between the table
and the girdle are generally thirty-two facets, and below
the girdle twenty-four. These facets receive their names
from their forms. Star facets are those whose edges abut
on the table ; the others are generally triangular. Accord-
ing to the number of facets, the Brilliant is said to be
single, double, or Old English cut. The Brilliant depends
greatly upon the facetting for its exceeding beauty.

The English make the girdle rather sharp ; while the
Dutch make it broader. The former method brings out
the play of light better.

A form, called the " Star" was invented by M. Caire,
to take advantage of the clear portions of rough Diamonds,
which could not be otherwise used without great sacrifice
of material. The Star-cut Diamond, as it is now worn,
must be cut with extreme exactitude, avoiding the very
slightest irregularity.

30 The Working oj Precious Stones.

2.— THE ROSE.

This form, which has been in use since 1520, but is now
quite out of fashion, is fancifully supposed to resemble an
opening rose-bud. It is chosen when the loss to the stone
would be great if the Brilliant cut were selected. The
characteristic of the Rose is that it is flat below, and forms
a hemisphere or low pyramid above, covered with small
facets. The facets are in two rows : those in the upper
row are called star-facets ; those in the lower diagonal
facets. In the centre there are generally six facets of
triangular shape. A circular stone is best for the Rose
the facets being more effectively brought out, and more
easily polished than in a flat-shaped stone.

Although the Rose gives out a strong fire, and sends
its rays as far as a Brilliant, yet, in the latter, the play of
light is more remarkable, because the stone is deeper and
the facets exactly correspond, thus making the prismatic
colours more distinct. A Rose Diamond has very little
value at the present day.

The number of facets, together with their position,
decides the name of the Rose. A Dutch Rose is constituted
of twenty-four facets ; the Rose Recouped of thirty-six ;
and the Brabant Rose of twelve or even fewer, only less
raised than the Dutch.

3._ INDIAN CUT.

This has an upper part, lower part, and girdle. Its
most frequent form is that of a single-cut Brilliant In
consequence of the small effect produced by this form it is
generally re-cut to meet European requirements, but this
operation is usually attended with a very great loss of
weight to the stone ; the natives always cutting the stone
for weight and not for brilliancy.

The Working of Precious Stones. 31

4.— POINT CUT.

Stones may be pointed naturally or artificially. Some
Precious Stones may either be cut as four-sided pyramids
or are so formed by polishing the faces of the octahedron
and making them exactly true and regular. This style of
cutting is found in antique ornaments only, and was well-
known to Kentmann in 1562.

5.—BR10LETTES.

Briolettes are pear-shaped or oval stones, having
neither table, culette, nor edge, but covered all round with
triangular-shaped facets, and frequently pierced through
at the top in order that they may be worn suspended.

6.-PORTRAIT STONES.

These consist of thin plates of Diamond, evenly
polished on both sides, with little facets on the edges.
They serve to cover portraits in Jewelry.

7.— STEP-CUT OR GRADUATED FORM.

When the facets gradually decrease as they approach
the table and culasse, the gem is designated a " Step-cut.''
The style is effective, especially in coloured stones, the
light being thereby better reflected, and the play of color
intensified.

8._ CONVEX STONES OR CABOCHON.
When a stone receives one or two convex faces with

32 The Working of Precious Stones.

or without facets at the base, it is said to be convex cut, (e.g
Almandine Garnet). But when its faces are simply polished,
it is said to be cut en cabochon, as in the Opal and
Cat's-eye. In ancient times the Sapphire was always so
cut, and sometimes the Emerald and Ruby are now so
treated, especially for the Russian and occasionally for the
American market.

A stone cut with a flattish convex surface is said to be
tallow-topped.

CHAPTER V.

THE ENGRAVING AND CARVING OF PRECIOUS STONES.

HE engraving of Precious and Semi-Precious
Stones is an art of unknown antiquity. We
know, however, that as early as the year
1490 B.C., the stones in the breast plate of the
Jewish High-Priest were engraved with the names of the
twelve tribes "like the engravings of a signet." (Exodus
xxxix., 14). According to my reading the stones were
as follow :

\st Row. 2nd Row. ^rd Row.

Diamond. Opal. Aquamarine, or Beryl.

Ruby. Chrysolite, Jacinth, or Hyacinth.

Sapphire. or Peridot. Zircon, or Jargoon.

Emerald. Turquoise. Topaz, or

Chrysoberyl. Yellow Sapphire.

The design in an engraved stone is either sunk into
the material below its surface, when the engraving is
designated an Intaglio, or it is in relief, being raised above
the ground or surface, a process to which the term Cameo is
applied. Nearly all kinds of stones and gems have been
treated by one or other of these methods, although for
obvious reasons, brittle gems are not ordinarily selected as
materials upon which the art of the engraver can be satis-
factorily exercised. As a rule, the master-works in this

department of art are on beautiful translucent stones. An

34 The Engraving and Carving of Precious Stones.

artist naturally does not care to expend his time and talent
on a stone which will not display his work to the best
advantage, and at its full worth.

For Cameos it is desirable to select large stones,
remarkable for beauty of colour, with different layers or
strata ; although choice works of art have sometimes been
elaborated on gems of only one colour.

The greater the number of layers that an Australian
Opal or an Onyx or Sardonyx has, and the more beautiful
and varied the colours which it presents, the more costly is
the stone. The best stones for this particular work are
those with a white layer on a dark ground. They are still
better where there is a third layer above, such as white with
a reddish or brownish tinge, which the artist can work into
hair, wreaths, or dress. Entirely transparent Stones are
very rarely used for Cameos.

Stone engraving is said to have been introduced into
the West by Jews from Alexandria. In the Middle Ages
and even in later times, when there was no great master
in the Art of Engraving, the cut stones of the ancient
Greeks and Romans were used as signet rings. King
Pepin sealed with the Indian Bacchus, and Charlemagne
with a stone representing Jupiter Serapis.

Later on, signet rings were engraved with the king's
signature ; and lovers were wont to exchange at their
betrothal, rings cut to represent wishes or allegories.

In the fifteenth century, when Constantinople fell
under the dominion of the Turk, the Greek artists left their
fatherland, carrying with them into Italy their secret know-
ledge of stone engraving. The first fruits of this immigra-
tion were seen during the Pontificates of Martin V. and
Paul II. Lorenzo de' Medici assisted the development of
the art by affording to Giovanni Eernardi the means of

The Engraving and Carving of Precious Stones. 35

acquiring it both by instruction and by practice, so that he
eventually received the cognomen of Giovanni delle Cor-
nioli, in recognition of the perfection he had acquired in
engraving Carnelians. His work was so exquisite that it
bore favorable comparison with the masterpieces of old
classic times, and he has been regarded as the restorer of
the art of Stone Engraving in Italy. A contemporary of
his, named Dominico de' Camei, employed himself in
cutting beautiful Intaglios as well as Cameos. He sculp-
tured on a pale red Ruby tthe likeness of Ludovico, the
Moor, Duke of Milan.

The earliest trace of Stone Engraving in Germany is
found in Nuremberg and Strasbourg, in the I5th and i6th
centuries. France, England, and, in modern times, Rome
have produced most excellent artists in Stone Engraving.

Modern artists have so well imitated the works of
the Ancients that it is difficult even for a practised eye to
distinguish the old gems from the new, when they are
copied from the originals. The Egyptians and some
other ancient peoples possessed very able workers in
Stone Engraving ; but it would be unjust to modern
artists to declare that all excellence in this department
belongs to the antique, as the originals have not only
been equalled but even surpassed.

Francis L, of France, made the first collection of en-
graved stones ; and the Duke of Orleans' collection in
Paris was of world-wide celebrity. Many of the most
beautiful of ancient gems are carefully preserved in Berlin,
and in Vienna, Naples, Florence, in the Barberini Palace,
in the Museum of Duke Odescalchi in Rome, and in St.
Petersburg and Copenhagen. The Blacas collection, in
the British Museum, is reported to contain some of the
most valuable Intaglios in the world.

36 The Engraving and Carving of Precious Stones.

EXAMPLES OF ENGRAVED DIAMONDS.

No. i.

3-
4-
5-
6.

Portrait of a Philosopher.
Head of Emperor Leopold II.
Engraved Cross.

Signet Ring used by Charles I. when Prince of Wales.
Signet Ring used by Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I.
A Ring, formerly the property of Marie Antoinette.
Signet Ring used by Mary of Modena, Queen of James II,
Impression from the Diamond Signet of Charles I.
Head of Emperor Napoleon I.

The Engraving and Carving of Precious Stones. 37

ENGRAVED DIAMONDS.

The Diamond, owing to its extreme hardness and
consequent difficulty of working, has seldom been made
the medium for this branch of the lapidary's art, and, in
fact, so few notable examples of engraved Diamonds are
in existence that it has been considered of sufficient
importance and interest to devote a separate chapter
to this subject, and to give a few illustrations of the more
remarkable specimens of which we have authentic record.

It has been said that Clement Birago, of Milan, or his
master Jacopo da Trezzo, discovered in 1556 the art of
engraving the Diamond. According to Blum, Ambrosius
Caradossa was the first to sculpture Diamonds, but as I
have shewn above the art was known at the period of the
exodus of the children of Israel, and probably very much
earlier. The arms of Charles V- were engraved upon a
Diamond by Jacopo da Trezzo ; and his pupil Clement
Birago engraved on another Diamond a portrait of the
Spanish Prince Don Carlos. The arms of Queen Mary I. of
England were executed on a Diamond by Jacobus Thronus.

It is stated that there are in a collection at Florence
five fine examples of engraved Diamonds, four of which
are signets ; one engraved with the crowned arms of
Portugal, one which belonged to Catherine de' Medici,
engraved with a monogram of M.C. and coronet, another
with the Medici shield crowned, and a small one with
shield of arms and coronet.

The Duke of Bedford possesses a Diamond with the
head of the philosopher Posidonius engraved on it : Kluge
believed it to be an isolated example. In the' late Hope
collection there were three specimens, of which figures
i, 2, 3, in the plate of engraved Diamonds, placed opposite,
are illustrations.

38 The Engraving and Carving of Precious Stones.

Mary of Modena, Queen of James II., possessed a
Diamond signet with her cypher M.R. interlaced and
surmounted by a crown (fig. 7).

That the engraving on Diamonds was not confined to
foreigners is shewn by an interesting extract from the
Privy Seal books of the office of the Clerk of the Pells, now
in the Public Record Office (No. II, p. 142), which is cited
by Mr. C. Drury Fortnum in describing the Diamond signet
of Queen Henrietta Maria. This entry states that on Jan.
1 6th, 1628 — 9, the sum of £267 (which would be equiva-
lent to nearly ;£i,ioo of present value) was paid to one
Francis Walwyn, an English gem engraver, for cutting
finishing, and polishing a Diamond and engraving upon it
the arms of Charles I. with the initial letters of the name
of his Queen on each side (fig. 5).

Other examples of Walwyn's handiwork are in exist-
ence, one being in the private collection of Gems and
Jewels at Windsor Castle ; namely, the Diamond signet
ring used by Charles I. when Prince of Wales and engraved
with the Prince of Wales's plume of feathers (fig. 4).
Another is the impression of a seal affixed to some of the
letters of King Charles I, (fig. 8). The cutting is very
similar in character to that on his Queen's Diamond.

In 1877 an engraved Diamond was offered for sale;
it was a thin stone, engraved with the head of the Emperor
Napoleon I. The price was ,£1,000 ; but at such a sum it
did not find a purchaser. This stone (represented in
fig. 9) was exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of 1867.

A curious old Marquise ring which formerly belonged
to Marie Antoinette, has in the centre an oblong Diamond
engraved with her name, Marie : this is now in the collec-
tion of Streeter & Co , Ltd., and is represented by fig. 6,
on p. 36.

The Engraving and Carving of Precious Stones. 39

At the present day, the art of gem engraving has
arrived at such perfection that Diamonds are engraved
like any other gem-stones. No difficulty is made, if taken
to the proper artist. Any design, pattern, or arms may
now be engraved on Diamonds, as on Rubies, Sapphires,
or softer stones.

CHAPTER VI.

PRECIOUS STONES AS OBJECTS OF COMMERCE.

HE trade in Precious Stones has considerably
increased since the year 1860. Discoveries
have been made in many parts of the world,
and S. Africa, India, Siam, Ceylon and
Australia, now form the great emporiums.

Formerly Pegu, said to be famous for its market of

beautiful gems of all kinds, received yearly a very large

sum for its exports ; so also did Ceylon, from which island

we even now obtain some few of our coloured Stones,

especially Cats' Eyes, Sapphires and Rubies generally of an

inferior colour and quality. During the dynasty of the

Kandy Rulers, the right of digging for Precious Stones was

most jealously guarded as a royal prerogative, and the

inhabitants of particular villages, under the supervision of

hereditary overseers, were occupied in the search for gems.

A number of men are constantly occupied in this

exciting and precarious business ; and the idle and

disorderly adventurers who visit the villages are the

cause of great immorality among the inhabitants. The

results of their labors they used to sell to the Malays

who came to Saffragam with cloth and salt, which they

exchanged for Precious Stones. At the yearly Bhudda

Festival in August there is a jewel market held in

Ratnapura, whither those interested in jewels flock from

all parts of Ceylon.

Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. 4 1

The position of the people of Saffragam is so much
improved of late years that they are able to retain for
themselves any stones they find of great worth. Now
and then they are induced to exchange them for Dia-
monds or gold, which they can equally well conceal.
The artificers who cut and polish the stones on the spot
are generally Malays. Their work was formerly very
imperfect, and their knowledge of the art faulty, but
of late years they have much improved in the art of
cutting gems. Stones of inferior value, such as Cinna-
mon-stone and Tourmaline, are cut and polished by
ordinary workmen in Kandy, Matura and Galle, while
artistic and experienced workmen, who cut Sapphires,
Cats' Eyes and Rubies, live chiefly in Kalutara, and
Colombo.

The rare gems are cheaper in London than in
Colombo. Precious Stones are brought from all parts
of the world, both in the rough and native-cut to be
re-cut by London lapidaries. In Ceylon the stock is so
uncertain, that the price is largely determined at the
moment by the rank and wealth of the buyers. The
small Malay dealers do not purchase rare and fine
jewels, knowing quite well that the best and finest speci-
mens are carefully held back by the rich traders, or
travellers, who consign them to England, or obtain from
the native princes of India, who have an ardent passion
for gems, such remuneration as keeps up the prices of
high-class jewels.

It is quite impossible to judge accurately by the
Customs' Register in Ceylon of the worth of the Precious
Stones which are sent out of the island. Only a small
part is directly consigned to England ; the remainder is
bought up by private hands, but, for the most part

42 Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce.

ultimately finds its way to the English market. It is
calculated roughly, that the value of Precious Stones
found in the island amounts to over .£20,000 yearly.

More than a hundred and fifty years ago Brazil became
a powerful rival of India for Diamonds. The most beautiful
stones were found in the nearly inaccessible wilds of Minas
Geraes, by poor mulattoes and negroes, and sold to the
merchants. While Brazil belonged to the Portuguese Crown,
Lisbon enjoyed the largest share of the trade in Precious
Stones. The trade was a prerogative of the Crown.

At the present day the remarkable development of
Diamond-mining in South Africa has caused both the
Indian and the Brazilian Diamond-mines to almost cease
working.

In the trade of Precious Stones, the coloured stones
stand far behind the Diamond ; insomuch, that this stone
alone represents about 90 per cent, and the others
altogether only 10 per cent, of the quantity on sale.

Apart from the class to which the Precious Stone
belongs, the price is determined by the beauty, the quality
and play of colour, brilliancy, purity, rarity, the perfection
of the cutting, and above all, the weight of the stone. This
last quality greatly increases the price ; for as the most
beautiful stones are generally found in only small crystals,
the value rises with the size of the gem.

In the case of Semi-Precious Stones, the size and colour
also are much considered in determining the price, but
these advantages are not so important as the artistic
working of the stones. Stones depend mainly upon this
adventitious circumstance for their actual worth. As a
general maxim gems are valuable for their rarity, freedom
from flaws and quality ; fashion occasionally exercising
influence in a greater or less degree upon their market

Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. 43

value. Thus the Emerald has recently increased in value
tenfold.

At the Leipzig Easter Market, many years ago, Dia-
monds fell suddenly 50 per cent., owing to Dom Pedro
having paid the interest of the Brazilian State-Debt to
England in Diamonds instead of money, and thereby
causing a glut in the market. In 1 838 the price of Diamonds
again rose, but in 1848, in consequence of the Revolution in
France, it fell greatly. From that year until 1865 the
value of Diamonds seems to have increased at about the
rate of 5 per cent, per annum Then, at the end of the Civil
War in America it sprang up suddenly 25 per cent. At
the end of the Franco-German war of 1871 it rose another
10 per cent, and during the next two years there was a
gradual rise amounting to 20 per cent. Afterwards, owing
to the panic in America, and the effect of the discoveries at
the Cape, the market price steadily fell ; but, with the
revival of trade, fine Diamonds again reached a very high
value, and specimen Diamonds now realise a larger price
than ever.

In buying Precious Stones much precaution is re-
quired. Few wares are liable to more faults and imitations
than these, and the faults alone are sufficient materially to
lessen their value. In the rough stones they are not
easily observed ; and in manipulated gems they may be
hidden to a large extent by clever workmanship.

Among the most frequent defects are: (i) Feathers :
little rents or fissures in the inside of the stone ; found
in all kinds of Precious Stones. (2 ) Clouds : grey, brown
and white spots, very like clouds, which much increase
the labour of preparing the gem for sale ; this fault is
mostly found in Diamonds and pale Rubies. (3) Sand :
or little seed-like bodies within the stone, of white, brown

44 Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce.

or red colour : these are called dust when very fine and
in large numbers in one stone. Absolute perfection is no
more to be found in Diamonds and Precious Stones, than
in any other created things ; for, however perfect they
may appear at first sight, there is, as a rule, some trifling
defect discoverable on minute inspection. 25 per cent,
of the Diamonds found have to be cleaved, whereby the
Diamond-cutter is enabled to remove black spots or air-
bubbles, or any other flaws in the stone.

THE FIRST KNOWN APPLICATION OF DIAMONDS
FOR ORNAMENT.

The adaptability of the Diamond for personal orna-
ment is grounded mainly on its conspicuous lustre and
beautiful play of light, properties which are rendered
prominent by cutting the stone, so as to give it the greatest
number of surfaces consistent with its size. By this
manipulation the rough stone loses an amount of material
tending in some cases to more than one-half, and some-
times as much as two-thirds of its original weight.

The Tyrians are said to have been the first to apply
the Diamond to personal ornament, but the author thinks
this very doubtful, and believes that it was an article of
commerce much earlier among the peoples of the East.
They valued it highly, carried it as an amulet, and
attributed to it many medical virtues. It was regarded
also as a safeguard against madness.

The breastplate of Aaron previously referred to is
mentioned in Exodus xxxix, 10 to 14. Jeremiah (xvii. i)
speaks of the sin of Judah being written with " the point
of a Diamond,"— -puncto adamantis of the Vulgate — though
it is probable that this adamas was the corundum, and not

Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce. 45

the true Diamond. Ezekiel says of the Tynans : — " Thou
hast been in Eden, the Garden of God ; every precious
stone was thy covering, the Sardius, Topaz and the
Diamond, the Beryl, the Onyx, and the Jasper, the
Sapphire, the Emerald, and the Carbuncle. . . . Thou hast
walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire."
(Ez. xxviii. 13, 14).

The Chaldeans — who were the most superstitious
people, and seem to have initiated the Jews into their
mysteries, and their charms against evil and mischance —
perverted the precious stones from their purpose of ornament
and even of usefulness into idolatrous amulets, and
fixed on them superstitious attributes, from which it has
been found impossible to dissociate them, even at the
present day.

In early times the Diamond was worn rough, or
polished only on its upper surface. It was in this form that
it was used to ornament temples, stage goblets, reliquaries,
and crowns. In India the native uncut stones are still
prized under the name of Naifes.

It was not until the time of Charles VII. that the
French ladies began to adorn themselves with Diamonds.
The well-known Agnes Sorrel was probably a leader of
this fashion. Under Francis I. the ladies indulged to such
an extent in Diamond ornaments that it gave rise to the
saying, that "the ladies of France carried mills, forests, and
lands, on their shoulders." The Luxus or Sumptuary
Laws, in the reign of Charles IX. and Henry IV., were
aimed at this extravagance.

After the introduction of the art of Diamond-cutting
by Louis de Berquem, Diamonds were largely used for
ornament ; and at the present day a lady's dress is
not considered complete without them.

46 Precious Stones as Objects of Commerce.

The original cut of the Diamond was that of the table-
form, with a row of facets above. It was not until the
year 1520 that the Rose-cut was introduced, while the
form of the Brilliant was not known until the reign of
Louis XIII. of France. It was Cardinal Mazarin who first
had the Diamond cut as a Brilliant.

CHAPTER VII.

THE BURNING AND COLOURING OF PRECIOUS STONES.

THE BURNING OF PRECIOUS STONES.

ERTAIN kinds of Precious Stones are often
burnt or subjected to a high temperature, the
heat exercising a very peculiar influence upon
many stones, and in some cases modifying
or utterly changing their colour.

Thus, the Oriental Carnelian owes its beautiful tint
to artificial exposure to heat. The Pink Brazilian Topaz,
too, derives its remarkable colour from burning.

One way of burning Precious Stones is to roll them
up in a piece of sponge or tinder, and set fire to the
enveloping material. Another method is to place them
in a crucible, with either unslaked lime or iron-filings, and
heat them until they are quite clear. Occasionally where
a faulty stone with dark spots is burnt with sand and
iron-filings, the spots are removed and the colour equalized ;
but the process requires great care.

Rubies are occasionally infected with white spots
which can be removed by burning. Many coloured Jar-
goons have their tints more or less completely discharged
on exposure to a high temperature. Smoky Rock-Crystal
also, carefully heated in a crucible with lime, sand, or
charcoal, will usually come out perfectly clear. The
discharge of colour is evidently due to the decomposition
of the organic matter, with which the stone was tinted.

48 The Burning and Colouring of Precious Stones.

THE DYEING OF PRECIOUS STONES.

The possibility of giving artificial colours to Precious
Stones was not unknown to the Romans. Pliny relates
that recipes were offered for sale which professed to turn
Rock-Crystals into Emeralds and other transparent gems ;
that in India many Precious Stones were produced by
dyeing Rock-Crystal, and that the Ethiopians deposited
the pale Carbuncle in vinegar for fourteen days, when it
was alleged that it would shine brilliantly for a similar
number of months.

Respecting the artificial colouring of certain Agates,
Pliny says that in his day more of these stones were
probably coloured artificially than naturally : and that in
Arabia the Agate-nodules, if cooked seven days and seven
nights in honey, will, when prepared by the artist, present
veins, stripes and spots, which increase their effectiveness
as ornaments

This notion of honey purifying the Agate seems to
be the foundation of the following beautiful idea : " All
kinds of Precious Stones, cast into honey, become more
brilliant thereby, each one according to its colour, and all
persons become more acceptable in their vocation, when
they join devotion with it : household cares are thereby
rendered tranquil, the love of husband and wife more
sincere, the service of the prince more faithful, and all
kinds of business more easy and pleasant" — Extract from
the Introduction to " The Devout Life" by S. Francis de
Sales. Chap. III., par. 13. 1708.

In Oberstein and Idar — two neighbouring localities
near Kreuznach, on the river Nahe, famous for many
centuries for the industry of working in Agate — the artists
have been eminently successful in colouring not only the
surface but the inner depths of a great variety of siliceous

The Burning and Colouring of Precious Stones. 49

stones. The use of honey in the dyeing of stones was in
early times the secret of a few Agate merchants at Idar,
who obtained it from some Romans who periodically came
to procure various kinds of Onyx from the stone-polishers
at that place and at Oberstein. It is impossible to say
whether these Romans acquired the knowledge by reading
Pliny, or received it as a tradition in Italy.

The Art is based on the fact that the alternate layers
of the Chalcedony, in the agate nodule are not equally
porous, some strata readily absorbing a colouring liquid,
while others imbibe little or none of it. The porosity of
certain layers led the stone-polishers to conclude that
they might so colour these as to render mean and insig-
nificant-looking stones suitable for Cameos and cognate
purposes, and thereby materially increase their value.

The Agate merchants before purchasing a stone, test
the worth of the raw stone for dyeing by striking a thin
piece off it, damping it with the tongue, and observing
whether the drying of the stripes takes place quickly or
slowly. If the stripes absorb the moisture readily, the
stone is good for dyeing, and especially for Onyx-dyeing.
This test, however, cannot always be relied on, and the
manipulators are sometimes obliged to colour a small
piece experimentally before buying the stones.

At Oberstein and Idar the Onyx is dyed in the
following manner. The stone is twice washed, and then
dried. It is next laid in honey and water (half-a-pound
of honey to about sixteen or twenty ounces of water) or
in sugar and water, or in oil. The dish in which it is
laid must be clean. This is placed in a warm oven or
on a ^stove, and care must be taken that the stone is
always covered with the liquid, and that the liquid does

not boil. This treatment is continued for a period of

5O The Burning and Colouring of Precious Stones.

from fourteen to twenty-one days. The stone is then
taken out of the honey, or other medium, washed and
placed in another dish with sulphuric acid. This dish
is then covered, and placed in hot ashes with burning
charcoal over the cover. During this process the acid
is absorbed by the porous layers, and carbonizes the
saccharine or oleaginous matter previously imbibed by
the stone. In a very short time the stone will generally
be dyed by means of the carbon deposited in its pores,
which imparts to it a black or rich dark brown colour.
Some stones require a longer time ; and some will, despite
all care, take no colour. The last step is to remove the
stone from the sulphuric acid, wash it, dry it in the oven,
and lay it in oil for a day : this imparts to it an increased
clearness and brilliancy.

The stone known as "Brazilian Carnelian" is worked in
great quantities in Oberstein and Idar: the red colour is pro-
duced usually by steeping the stone in a solution of green
copperas, or ferrous sulphate, and then exposing it to heat.
The method of imparting a blue colour to Agate was
introduced at Oberstein in 1845. By steeping the stone
first in a solution of yellow prussiate of Potash and then
in one of a ferric salt, a precipitate of Prussian blue is
formed within the pores of the Agate. In other processes
a solution of blue vitriol and ammonia is employed, so
that an ammoniacal sulphate of copper, of magnificent
colour, thus becomes the tinctorial agent.

Of late, exquisite blue dyes have been found for the
Chalcedony, by which the varied shades of the more valuable
Turquoise and Lapis-Lazuli are produced. Both the
English and French markets have plentiful supplies of these
artificially-tinted stones, but the precise mode of operating
in order to produce the finest tints is known but to a few.

The Burning and Colouring of Precious Stones. 51

A green colour, resembling that of Chrysoprase, may
be obtained by impregnating the Agate with certain salts
of nickel or of chromium ; while a yellow tint is obtained
by digestion in warm muriatic acid, the iron in the stone
being thus converted into a chloride. In fact, the chemical
resources of the German Chemist now enable the worker
to colour porous stones to any desired tint.

SECTION II,

CHAPTER I.

THE DIAMOND

|IAMONDS, as they occur in Nature, usually
but not invariably present the form of crystals,
more or less regular and perfect in their devel-
opment. These forms belong to the group of geometrical
solids known to crystallographers as the Cubic or Tesseral
or Isometric system. The most common forms are the
regular octahedron and the rhombic dodecahedron ; the
former bounded by eight equilateral triangles, and the
latter by twelve rhombs, or lozenge-shaped surfaces. It is
notable that the faces of the crystals are often more or less
curved, or convex, whilst those of other crystalline bodies,
with few exceptions, are flat. Not unfrequently the Dia-
mond takes the form of a six-faced octahedron, which, by
the rounding of its eight-and-forty faces becomes almost
spherical or approaches a small ball in shape. In some
cases the crystals are curiously " twinned " or " macled."

Groups of crystals, dodecahedra as well as octahedra,
are not rare ; there is for instance, a very fine specimen
of such a mass of coalesced octahedra in the Royal Mineral
Museum at Dresden. In the Vienna Collection there is
a Diamond which has, enclosed within itself, another
similarly-crystallised Diamond of a yellow-colour ; and

The Diamond. 53

the author observed a case in which on cleaving one from
South Africa, a small Diamond of almost black colour fell
out from its enclosure. Various included bodies, mostly
microscopic, have been recorded by Brewster, Chatrian,
and other observers.

The surface of a crystal of Diamond is generally
smooth ; but it is sometimes indented with triangular im-
pressions, and in certain cases is striated with lines parallel
to the edges of the octahedral faces. Some Diamonds
present a rough surface, resembling poorly polished glass,
and are not unfrequently dull, as though covered with a
thin coating of gum. These generally cut into very fine
white stones.

The Diamond is occasionally found in concretionary
crystalline forms, which pass under the name of Bort;
while another variety termed Carbonado^ of brownish-black
colour, is so indistinctly crystalline as to be often regarded
as compact. These varieties will form the subject of a
separate chapter.

The Diamond presents a perfect cleavage, parallel to
the faces of the octahedron, which is its primary form.
The Diamond cutter avails himself of his knowledge of this
natural structure, and is thereby enabled in many cases to
remove spots from a stone by cleaving, without resorting
to the weary work of grinding. The famous Dr. Wollaston,
in the early part of this century, was one of the first to
call attention to the advantages offered by the ready
cleavage of the Diamond. He purchased one from the
firm of Messrs. Rundle & Bridge, which they considered
too much flawed to be worth their while to cut, but the
learned doctor minutely studied the structure of the stone,
and having removed the defective part by cleavage had
the perfect portion cut, when he re-sold it to Messrs.

54 The Diamond.

Rundle & Bridge, for a sum which gave him a large profit.
Long before Wollaston's time, however, there must have
been many students of Precious Stones who were familiar
with the cleavage of the Diamond. Thus De Boot, writing
in 1609, tells us that he knew a physician who boasted that
he could " divide a Diamond into small scales like a piece
of talc." The fracture of the Diamond, apart from its
cleavage, is conchoidal, and here and there the stone is
liable to split off in fragments.

Among the physical properties of the Diamond that
of hardness is pre-eminent ; a quality in which it so ex-
ceeds all other bodies that it can penetrate them without
being itself even scratched. In consequence of its excess-
ive hardness it was formerly only possible to polish it
partially, by rubbing it against another rough Diamond — a
process which is known as "bruting." In early times there
existed so exaggerated an idea of its extraordinary hard-
ness that it was said a Diamond could not be broken by a
hammer on an anvil, and that it was far easier to strike the
anvil into the earth than to break the Diamond. This will
account for the loss of many Diamonds in antiquity, as it
was the absurd practice to place them upon the anvil to
test their genuineness. Through this ignorance many a
regal gem has been shattered and so lost to the world. It
was, of course, only the brittleness of the stone which was
really tested by the hammer, and not its hardness, which
is a very different quality.

Pliny gives a detailed account of the Diamond in his
"Natural History," xxxvii., 15. As translated by old
Dr. Holland, he says : u The most valuable thing on earth
is the Diamond, known only to kings, and to them im-
perfectly. ... It is only engendered in the finest
gold Six different kinds are known. Among

The Diamond. 55

these the Indian and Arabian, of such indomitable, un-
speakable hardness, that when laid on the anvil it gives
the blow back in such force as to shiver the hammer and
anvil to pieces. It can also resist fire, for it is incapable

of being burnt This superiority over steel and

fire is subdued by goat's blood, in which it must be soaked
when the blood is fresh and warm ; then only when the
hammer is wielded with such force as break both it and

the anvil, will it yield Only a god could have

communicated such a valuable secret to mankind. When
at last it yields by means of the blood, it falls into such
small pieces that they can scarcely be seen."

The curious opinions of the Ancients as to the infran-
gibility of the Diamond are discussed by Sir Thomas
Browne, in his famous work on "Vulgar Errors,'* written
in 1646. The doctor is naturally led to discard the old
views, notwithstanding the support which they had re-
ceived from the early Christian writers, and to conclude,
on the evidence of practical diamond-cutters, that Dia-
monds " are so far from breaking hammers, that they
submit unto pistillation, and resist not an ordinary pestle."
As a matter of fact the Diamond is so brittle that it is
readily reduced to grains, or powder, by pounding in a
steel mortar.

Hardness is the best test of the genuineness of a
Diamond. If a mineral cannot be scratched or cut by
Ruby or Sapphire, it must be a Diamond. It is true that
certain bodies, like Carborundum, recently formed in the
electric furnace, are harder than Ruby or Sapphire ; but
these are not minerals.

It is notable that the hardness of the Diamond varies
in different crystals, and even in different parts of the
same crystal. The experience of diamond-cutters leads

56 The Diamond.

to the conclusion that the Australian Diamonds are harder
and tougher than the stones from India, Borneo and Brazil,
while these again have a hardness superior to that of most
of the stones from South Africa.

Optical Properties. — Refraction.

The conditions which the Diamond presents in rela-
tion to light are very remarkable. It is one of those
bodies which refract light most strongly — that is to say,
when a ray of light enters a Diamond, it is turned from
its original path to a much greater extent than if it had
entered a Topaz, or a Rock-Crystal, or a piece of glass,
or, in fact, any other transparent medium. Hence the
magnifying power of a Diamond is much greater than
that of glass. It is said that if a Diamond and a piece
of plate-glass be ground into lenses of similar form, the
magnifying power of the Diamond will exceed that of
glass in the ratio of 8 to 3. It was this that induced
Mr. A. Pritchard, many years ago, to apply the Diamond
as a microscopic lens ; but owing to the great difficulty
of manipulating it, so as to adapt it to the purpose,
as well as its intrinsic value, its use was extremely
restricted.

As the Diamond is found in nature as a crystalline
solid substance, of distinct form, it has naturally been
generally assumed to be a mineral production. Probably
the first philosopher to throw doubt on this conclusion was
Sir Isaac Newton. In his remarkable optical researches
he had established a definite relation between the refractive
power of a body and its density. The power of refraction
in each body is expressed scientifically by a certain
number, or numerical ratio, called the index of refraction.

The Diamond. 57

Now, Newton found that the index of refraction of Dia-
mond was much higher than he should have anticipated
from the specific gravity of the stone. But he had
observed that fatty and resinous bodies — such as oils,
turpentine, and amber — possessed in like manner a higher
refractive index than their density would suggest. Hence
he was led to throw out the bold conjecture that the
Diamond might be " an unctuous body coagulated ! "

Reflection and Dispersion.

In addition to its property of strong refraction, the
Diamond possesses the power, in an extraordinary degree,
of reflecting and dispersing the rays of light, thus causing
what is technically termed the " play of colors," observ-
able on a well-cut Diamond. The optical term " dispersion"
is applied to the power which a transparent substance
possesses of breaking up the incident white light into
prismatic tints, like those of the rainbow — a power which
is enjoyed to an unusual extent by the Diamond, and gives
rise to the splendid flashes of fire emitted by a stone which
has been skilfully cut.

As the value of a Diamond depends very materially
upon this play of colors, many methods have been essayed
from time to time for testing it. Babinet recommended
the following plan, which he himself was in the habit of
employing, In a sheet of white paper he pierced a hole
somewhat larger than the Diamond to be tested ; he then
let a ray of sun-light pass through the hole, and holding
the Diamond a little distance from it, yet at such an angle
as to allow the ray to alight on a point of a flat facet, he
found this facet to be forthwith represented on the paper
as a white figure, whilst all around little rainbow circles
were delineated. If the observer found the primary colors,

58 The Diamond.

i.e., red, yellow, and blue, definitely separated one from the
other in these little circles, and if their number were
considerable, and they stood at equal distances from each
other, then he pronounced the Brilliant to be well cut.

The efFulgency of a good Brilliant largely depends on
the fact that by the small " critical angle " of a Diamond
(24° 13' ) much of the light which enters the stone, instead
of passing through it, is " totally reflected " from some of
the facets, and thus returns to the eye of the observer. In
the Rose Diamond the light is reflected from the under-
plane.

As the Diamond is a mineral which crystallizes in the
cubic system, it does not, in its normal condition, possess
the power of double refraction, neither does it polarize
light ; but Sir David Brewster long ago shewed that there
are in many stones certain optical irregularities due to
internal air-bubbles, cavities, or other flaws. The vapour or
gas in these minute cavities is pent up under intense
pressure, and the Diamond is thus thrown locally into a
state of tension, which gives rise to double refraction. So
great is the internal strain in some Diamonds, that they
explode when unearthed from their matrix and brought up
from the mine, especially when held in a warm hand, which
naturally tends to expand the included gas.

Lustre and Colour.

The lustre of the Diamond is of that peculiar,
indescribable, but well-known character termed adamantine.
The surface of the native crystal is often rough, and has a
peculiar leaden grey serni-metallic lustre.

The Diamond in its purest condition, is colourless and
transparent ; yet at times it is found coloured throughout

The Diamond. 59

of almost every possible tint ; it may thus become pale-
yellow, deep-yellow, light bottle-green, yellowish-green,
blackish-green, blue, red, brown, and black. Yellowish
tints are the most common in " off-coloured stones : "
next to yellow, greenish Diamonds are most numerous.
Blue and red are very rare, and are highly valued as fancy
stones. When the Diamond is between brown and black
its transparency disappears, or is seen only at the angles.

Perfectly colourless Diamonds come from the mines
of India, Brazil, the Cape, Borneo, and Australia. Perhaps
about one-fourth of the crystals which come into the
market are colourless ; one-fourth of " pure water," with a
flaw or spot of colour ; and the remainder coloured.

The coloured Diamonds exhibit their lustre and
clearness best when they are cut, especially the yellow
ones, which by candle-light, are very brilliant.

Barbot is said to have succeeded, by means of
chemical agents and a high temperature, in removing the
colouring matter from the rough Diamond ; but it seems
scarcely possible that this can be accurate, though
M. Barbot on the title-page of one of his works styled
himself " Inventeur du Precede de Decoloration du Dia-
mant brut." Curiously enough, De Boot asserted 280
years ago, that his Imperial patron, Rudolf II., possessed
a secret which enabled him to clear any Diamond of its
flaws and colour.

Various devices have been resorted to by unprincipled
dealers for deceiving the purchaser in respect to the colour
of Diamonds. Thus, the yellow tint of many off-coloured
Cape stones, has been corrected by painting them with
a pale blue solution, or washing them with dilute violet
ink. The effect is only temporary, and the trick is of
course easily detected by placing the Diamond in spirit.

60 The Diamond.

In many Diamonds the core is not pure, but shows
blackish or greenish spots. This is more particularly the
case in the green stones. Many Diamonds have also
" feathers " and fissures, which materially modify the
passage of light, and of course diminish the value of the
stones.

Black Diamonds of great beauty are occasionally
supplied by Borneo, which are so adamantine that ordinary
Diamond-dust makes not the smallest impression upon
them ; and they can only be ground or polished by using
their own dust for the purpose. Of late black Diamonds
have been much sought after.

Phosphorescence, &c*

Phosphorescence is produced not only by heat, but
also by the action of light, and persists long after removal
from the luminous source. The Diamond becomes phos-
phorescent under the influence of the sun's rays, or by
insolation, and remains glowing for some time after removal
from the sunshine, even when covered with cloth, leather
or paper. It appears that this property was first recorded
by Boyle in the year 1663.

The phosphorescence is most striking after the Diamond
has been exposed to the blue or more refrangible rays of
the spectrum ; under the red rays, or rays of low re-
frangibility it is much weaker. The author on one occasion
exposed a fine orange-coloured Diamond of about 115
carats to the prolonged action of a powerful lime-light,
and then removed it to a dark-room, when the phos-
phorescence was sufficient to light up the apartment. All
Diamonds do not phosphoresce after exposure to light,
but Diamonds of yellow colour seem peculiarly susceptible
to luminous influences.

The Diamond. 61

In Sir William Crookes's remarkable researches on
radiant matter, he submitted the Diamond and other
minerals to the effect of the molecular discharge in vacuum
tubes connected with a powerful induction coil. " Without
exception," he says, " the Diamond is the most sensitive
substance I have yet met for ready and brilliant phos
phorescence." A beautiful green Diamond in his collection
emits a pale greenish light, and becomes almost as
luminous as a candle-flame Most South African
Diamonds glow with a bluish light, but stones from other
localities phosphoresce in various colours. Sir William
Crookes finds that those Diamonds which phosphoresce
most vividly under the electric discharge in a vacuum are
such as become fluorescent on exposure to sunlight. He
has also observed that when a Diamond is exposed to
radiant discharge it gradually becomes brown or even
black, in consequence of the surface becoming converted
into Graphite

It has been shown by Mr. G. F. Kunz, of New York,
that a very slight amount of friction is sufficient to cause
a Diamond, if clean and dry, to exhibit a phosphorescent
glow of greater or less intensity. The friction may be
effected on either wood, cloth or metal ; but the best
results were obtained by rubbing the stone on wood, in a
direction across the grain.

One of the remarkable optical characters of the Dia-
mond, as observed a short time ago by Sir William Crookes,
is its transparency to the X rays. On the contrary, the glass
which is used for fabricating imitation Diamonds is almost
opaque to the Rontgen radiations ; and this difference has
consequently placed in our hands a new mode of dis-
tinguishing, with readiness and certainty, between false and
genuine diamonds, and other gems.

62 The Diamond.

The Diamond is a non-conductor of electricity — a
fact which is the more remarkable as Graphite and Charcoal,
substances absolutely identical with it chemically, are very
good conductors. By friction, however, both in the rough
and polished state, it becomes positively electric. When
exposed to the intense heat of the electric arc, the
Diamond swells up, becomes black, and is converted
superficially into a form of Graphite.

Chemical Composition.

The chemical composition of the Diamond was not
demonstrated completely until about forty-four years after
Sir Isaac Newton's death (b. 1642 — d. 1727). Notwith-
standing the expressed conviction of Newton that the
Diamond was combustible, a great contemporary, the Hon.
Robert Boyle, desirous of putting the combustibility of the
Diamond to the test, placed a Diamond in his crucible, and
then subjected it to an intense heat without effecting his
purpose. His death occurred in 1691 ; and three years after-
wards the Grand Duke Cosmo III. induced the Academia
del Cimento in Florence, to fix a Diamond in the focus of a
large burning glass, and expose it to the solar beam. The
experiment was performed by the Academicians Averani,
and Targioni ; and the experimenters saw the Diamond
crack, coruscate, and finally disappear, without leaving be-
hind any appreciable ash. In 175 1, the Emperor Francis I.,
in the presence of the celebrated chemist Darcet, in Vienna,
subjected Diamonds and Rubies, of the estimated value of
;£6oo, to the heat of a smelting furnace for four-and-twenty
hours, when the Diamonds wholly disappeared, but the
Rubies remained, not only uninjured, but more lustrous
than before. The author in like manner has exposed

The Diamond. 63

Burmese Rubies to very high temperatures, in order to see
whether they might not be thus removed from their
matrix of calcspar, without producing any appreciable
effect upon them.

Many authorities in the scientific world turned, their
attention during the last century to the chemistry of the
Diamond, and carried on experiments, to ascertain the exact
nature of its composition. In the laboratory of M. Macquer
on July 26th, 17/1, a magnificent Diamond was burnt with
the same result as that which the Emperor Francis had
obtained twenty years previously in Vienna. As a flame
was said to be seen surrounding the Diamond in Macquer's
experiment, there could be no doubt that the mineral had
actually undergone combustion — a fate which has befallen
several hundreds of small Diamonds, burnt under the
author's care in experiments performed in conjunction with
Professor Pepper, both at the Royal Polytechnic Institution
and at the author's establishment: in all cases the Diamond
was practically consumed, leaving behind only an insignifi-
cant amount of ash in the form of a light bluish powder.

It appears that, notwithstanding the experiments in
France which demonstrated the combustibility of the
Diamond, a well-known jeweller of Paris, M. Leblanc
came forward, and declared the Diamond to be inde-
structible in the furnace, though heat might be applied
for any length of time. He stated in confirmation of
his assertion, that he had often subjected Diamonds of
his own to intense fire, to rid them of blemishes, and
that they had never suffered the slightest injury from
his treatment of them. Thereupon the two chemists,
Darcet and Rouelle, demanded that he should make the
experiment before them on the spot. He accepted the
challenge, and taking some Diamonds, he enclosed them

64 The Diamond.

in a mass of charcoal and lime in a crucible, and sub-
mitted them to the action of the fire, expressing himself
confident that at the end of the trial he should find them
uninjured. But alas ! he had sacrificed his Diamonds, for
on looking into the crucible after the three hours' tria^
they had entirely disappeared. His colleagues, however,
did not long enjoy their triumph, for M. Mitouard, another,
jeweller, in the presence of the eminent chemist, M.Lavoisier
took three Diamonds, and having closely packed them in
powdered charcoal, in an earthen pipe-bowl, submitted them
to the test of fire, and when the bowl was removed and
cooled, there lay the Diamonds in the centre of the
powdered charcoal, untouched by the heat. Lavoisier
was not convinced by the experiment, and it soon occurred
to him that the conditions under which Mitouard's test
was conducted might account for the difference of result.
It was, indeed, soon discovered that the immunity
enjoyed by the Diamonds of Mitouard, was due to the
exclusion of the oxygen of the air from the Diamond
by packing it in a substance of the same nature, in a state
of fine division, by which means all the oxygen that was
admitted attacked first the carbon, with which it combined.
Lavoisier thus appears to have set the matter at rest ;
but it was not until 1814 that Sir Humphry Davy showed
conclusively by quantitative experiments that the Diamond
was practically nothing but pure carbon.

When a Diamond is burnt, with a free supply of
oxygen or of atmospheric air, it is completely converted
into the gaseous body known to chemists as carbon
di-oxide. This carbon di-oxide, which is commonly called
carbonic acid, resulting from the burning of the Diamond
is identical with that which attends the combustion of

The Diamond. 65

every fire and gas burner, or the decomposition of organic
bodies, and which is exhaled in every breath we breathe.

One of the most beautiful, and at the same time, most
conclusive of experiments, both as regards the combusti-
bility and the composition of the Diamond, may be very
simply performed as follows : — Fill a Florence flask with
oxygen, into which pour three or four ozs. of lime-water,
perfectly pellucid and clear. Through the stopper of the
flask lead the two wires from a galvanic battery. Join the
wires inside the flask by a fine coil of platinum wire,
wound round a Diamond. Turn on the current : the
platinum wire will glow white hot, the Diamond will
burst into flame, and continue burning after the current
is broken. The clear pellucid lime-water will become
turbid and milky, owing to the carbonic acid produced
by the burning Diamond forming, with the lime-water,
carbonate of lime ; and finally a sediment of this solid
white carbonate of lime will be precipitated, while the
flask, at the conclusion of the experiment, will be found
to contain carbonic acid gas.

The temperature must be very high and somewhat
protracted for the burning of a solid Diamond. A much
lower degree of temperature, however, will be sufficient
to burn Diamond dust, if the latter be spread out on
a thin red-hot platinum plate, placed over a spirit lamp.
Small Diamonds will burn in a short time, if put on a
plate of the same metal, and if the flame of a spirit-lamp
be directed by a blow-pipe under the plate.

When a Diamond is subjected to the sun's rays in the
focus of a burning glass, or heated in oxygen gas, it gives
out bright red sparks while burning. In order to observe
how the Diamond suffered during the process of combus-
tion, Petzholdt took two sharp-angled pieces of Diamond

66 The Diamond.

and placed them before the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe.
From time to time they were removed in order to observe
the action of the fire upon their form and substance ; he
thus detected that the heat had first acted on the
sharp angles, thus rounding the Diamonds ; and on the
re-application of the heat, he observed that the Diamonds
soon split up in pieces, and lost both their transparency
and lustre. He could not detect any evidence of
melting on the surface of the burning Diamonds ; but
on removing them from the fire, they assumed a leaden-
grey color, due, no doubt, to superficial conversion into
Graphite. Lavoisier also noticed that on exposing the
Diamond to intense heat, black spots appeared on it, then
disappeared, and re-appeared. Guyton de Morveau con-
firmed these statements. He consumed a Diamond in
oxygen, by means of a burning-glass. First he saw on
that corner of the Diamond which was in the exact focus
of the lens a black point ; then the Diamond became black
and carbonized. A moment after, he saw clearly a bright
spark, twinkling as it were on the dark ground ; and when
the light was intercepted, the Diamond was red, and for a
time transparent. A cloud now passed over the sun, and
the Diamond was more beautifully white than at first ;
but as the sun again shone forth the surface assumed a
metallic lustre. Up to this point the Diamond had sensibly
decreased in bulk, not being more than a fourth of its
original size. The experiment was suspended for a day or
two. On its resumption, the same phenomena occurred,
but in a more marked degree ; subsequently the Diamond
entirely disappeared. At the conclusion of his treatise, in
which these experiments are detailed, he says, " If it were
possible, while the Diamond is burning, to collect the black
substance which covers the surface, the Diamond would

The Diamond. 67

indisputably be shewn to be carbon : " that is to say, it
would be recognized under the more generally known
form of graphitic carbon.

Fourcroy corroborated Guyton de Morveau. He
placed two small Diamonds in a capsule, under a muffle,
heated them, arrested the burning, suffering the half-
consumed bodies to cool, and on removing the muffler
he found them quite black, as though they had a covering
of soot, which he removed by rubbing with a piece of
paper, on which was left a black mark.

To Guyton de Morveau we are indebted for describ-
ing an interesting experiment made by Clouet in 1798,
which consisted in converting iron into steel by heating
it with the Diamond. Since steel is a combination of
iron and carbon, this indirectly establishes the composi-
tion of the gem. Pepys, in the early part of this century,
also effected the carburisation of iron-wire, by heating it
with Diamond-dust by means of a galvanic battery. The
experiment has been repeated in various ways by other
experimentalists in modern times, notably by Margueritte
in France, and Hempel in Germany, and by Professor
Roberts-Austen in this country. The last named chemist
used pure electrolytic iron which was heated in vacuo by
means of an electric current, so as to expel all occluded
gas : small Diamonds were then introduced in contact with
the iron, and the metal again connected with the dynamo,
when fusion occurred and the molten metal combined with
the substance of the Diamond.

The brothers Rogers, two American scientists of great
reputation, asserted that with potassium chromate and
sulphuric acid at from 1 80° to 230° the Diamond is oxi-
dized into carbonic acid. Jacquelain and Despretz used
very powerful galvanic batteries, and found that a

68 The Diamond.

Diamond, heated in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, by
means of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, gradually dis-
appeared without any sign of softening. Morren has
studied the behaviour of the Diamond when exposed to
high temperature in various gaseous media.

Gassiot experimented on the Diamond by strong
galvanic currents between carbon points, demonstrating
that in burning Diamonds, uncrystallized black carbon is
first produced, which at a very high temperature, burns
off into carbon di-oxide ; that many rough Diamonds
possessing a metallic lustre become leaden-grey, and that
the blackish spots, adhering to the surface of some, may
be got rid of by great heat.

Some very notable experiments on the action of heat
upon Diamonds, were made some years ago, by the late
Professor Gustav Rose, of Berlin. Enclosing the stones in
strong glass vessels, from which the air had been ex-
hausted, he subjected them to the intense heat of the
electric arc produced by Siemens's powerful machines.
Air being thus excluded, the Diamonds could not be
consumed, but it was remarkable that they gradually
became encrusted with a dark coating of graphitic carbon,
resembling blacklead.

That the Diamond could be converted into Graphite
when heated in the electric arc was clearly demonstrated
as far back as 1847 by Jacquelain ; but quite recently
M. Moissan, by means of his electric furnace, has carefully
studied the phenomenon, and has found that the resulting
Graphite occurs in irregular crystalline forms. At a very
exalted temperature he has been able to volatilize carbon.

Professor Dewar, in his remarkable researches on
liquid oxygen at the Royal Institution, has shewn that if a
Diamond be strongly heated, and then suddenly thrown

The Diamond. 69

into the liquid, it burns with great brilliancy, and yields
by its oxidation, carbonic acid, which at the low tem-
perature of the condensed oxygen forms a solid snow-like
substance.

Although chemists concluded long ago that the
Diamond was a natural form of carbon, it remained for
Dumas, the eminent French chemist, in conjunction with
Stas, of Brussels, to undertake about the year 1840, some
refined researches, which definitely fixed with extreme
precision the chemical composition of the Diamond. M.
Friedel in Paris, and Sir Henry Roscoe in this country,
have also investigated the subject, and the chemistry of
the Diamond is thus placed beyond dispute.

THE ORIGIN OF THE DIAMOND.

Numerous hypotheses, some extremely ingenious,
have been suggested by scientific men to explain the
origin and formation of the Diamond. Some have sup-
posed that it has been formed immediately from carbon or
carbonic acid by the action of heat ; others that it has
been produced from the gradual decomposition of vegetable
matter, with or without heat, or that it is formed from the
decomposition of gaseous hydro-carbons ; whilst others
again believe that it has been crystallized from a molten
metal like iron.

Leonhardt held that the Diamond was formed by the
sublimation of carbon in the depths of the earth ; Parrot
that it was produced by the action of volcanic heat upon
small pieces of carbon ; Gobel, that pure carbon has been
separated from carbonic acid by electricity in the presence
of reducing agents, such as magnesium, calcium, aluminium,
silicon and iron ; Hausmann, that it is by the action of

7O The Diamond.

electricity, especially in the form of lightning, upon car-
bonic acid, that its decomposition is effected ; and he
quotes the statements of the Ancients, "that in those mines
where the largest number of Diamonds were found, were
so-called thunder-bolts."

Among those who have supported the vegetable
origin of the Diamond, is Newton, who believed it to be a
coagulated fat, or oily body, of vegetable origin. Jameson
and Brewster advanced similar views ; and Petzholdt also
decided for the vegetable origin, basing his conclusions
mainly on the microscopic study of the residual ash left
when a Diamond is burnt. In view of our present
knowledge it is interesting to read what the great chemist,
Liebig said on this subject : " Science affords us no
analogy, except that of decomposition and decay, for the
formation or origin of the Diamond. We know that it
does not owe its origin to fire ; for a high temperature
and the presence of oxygen are incompatible with it on
account of its combustibility : on the contrary, there is
undeniable ground for supposing that it was formed in
the wet way ; and the decomposition process alone
helps us in our attempts to solve the mystery of its
origin. What kind of vegetable substance, rich in hydro-
carbons, the decomposition of which gave rise to the
Diamond, and what particular conditions had to be
fulfilled in order to crystallize the carbon, are not at
present known to us ; but this much is certain, that the
process must have been exceedingly gradual, and in no
way hastened by a high temperature ; otherwise the
carbon would not have become crystallized, but would
have separated itself as a black powder."

Wohler also was of opinion that the Diamond did not
originate at a high temperature, or at least not by fusion.

The Diamond. 71

The late George Wilson, of Edinburgh, held the view
that the Diamond, might be formed from anthracite, or
steam-coal, without a change from the solid state.

Dana, the venerable American geologist, regarded the
Diamond as a product of the decomposition of organic
matter, under the operation of various agents of meta-
morphism. The late Prof. Carvill Lewis sought the origin
of the South African diamonds in the decomposition of
carbonaceous shales by the action of certain volcanic mater-
ials thrust through them. According to the late A. Favre
the paragenesis of the Brazilian Diamonds suggests the pre-
sence of chloride of carbon as the substance which, by its
decomposition, yielded the pure carbon. Gannal advocated
the view that it results from the decomposition of carbon
disulphide.

Opposed in some degree to all the above theories,
is the view of Simlar, of Breslau, that the Diamond is the
result of the crystallization of carbon from a liquid solution.
According to his theory, carbonic acid collected, in far
away time, in a number of cavities, and was liquefied under
great pressure ; it then dissolved some pre-existing form of
carbon ; and subsequently the carbonic acid became
gradually dissipated through fissures and clefts, and the
crystallization of the dissolved carbon began. Supposing
the pressure suddenly to abate, and a quick evaporation of
the liquid to occur, a considerable mass of compact black
Diamond might be formed, such as is known in commerce
as carbonado, or carbon.

There has been a suspicion in the minds of many
chemists that the origin of the Diamond may be possibly
sought in the slow decomposition of certain gaseous hydro-
carbons. Thus, Chancourtois suggested that emanations
of hydro-carbons from fissures in the earth might suffer

72 The Diamond.

partial oxidization, the hydrogen being converted into
water and part of the carbon into carbonic acid, while the
residual carbon might be deposited in a free state, just as
sulphur is set free on the oxidation of emanations of sul-
phuretted'hydrogen. Rousseau has obtained black Diamond
by heating acetylene in the electric furnace.

It is well known to metallurgists that molten iron will
dissolve carbon, and that the excess beyond that which
forms cast-iron will separate, on cooling, in the form of
crystalline plates of graphite, known to the iron-workers
under the curious name of " kish." M. Moissan has shewn
that the physical condition which the carbon assumes is
dependent to a large extent on the pressure to which it is
subjected at the time of consolidation, and that under
enormous pressure it is liberated in the form of Diamond.
This discovery has given fresh interest to some observations
made in Edinburgh about the year 1880 by Dr. Sydney
Marsden. He found that molten silver dissolved carbon,
and that this separated, on cooling, partly as amorphous,
or un-crystallized matter, and partly in the crystalline
states of Graphite and Diamond. The use of the electric
furnace has enabled M. Moissan to confirm and extend
these observations.

In order to secure the separation of carbon in the
adamantoid form, Moissan saturated the iron with pure
carbon, and suddenly cooled the mass by plunging it into
a bath of molten lead, when the exterior consolidated as a
crust around the molten iron : this then slowly solid-
ified, and by its expansion in cooling an enormous pressure
was secured. The experiment has been successfully
repeated by several chemists in this country.

But though Diamonds have thus been artificially
produced they are of such "minute size, being merely

The Diamond. 73

microscopic grains, as to be utterly destitute of commercial
value. Neveitheless they are of great scientific interest as
suggesting a possible mode of origin for natural Diamonds.
Indeed Sir W. Crookes believes that the South African
Diamonds may have been formed in a somewhat similar
way from deep-seated masses of metallic iron.

In connection with this subject mention should be
made of some remarkable discoveries of diamantoid carbon
in meteoric iron. On September 22nd, 1886, three meteo-
rites, or sky-stones, fell near Novo Urei, in a remote part
of South-Eastern Russia. These strange visitants from
space were subjected to scientific examination by MM.
JerofeifTand Latchinoff; and in one of the meteorites, carbon
was found in a diamantoid condition, forming about one
per cent, of the entire weight of the stone. It is true that
•this carbon was rather of the character of carbonado, the
black variety of Diamond, to be subsequently described; but
still the presence of any kind of Diamond in an aerolite is
a fact of surpassing scientific interest, while even those who
are not scientific, will not fail to appreciate the importance
of finding this remarkable mineral in a heaven-dropped
stone.. -

Still more remarkable results attended the examina-
tion of the famous meteorites of Canyon Diablo, in Arizona.
In 1890 numerous fragments of iron, some weighing as
much as half a ton, were found scattered over the surface
of a plain in Arizona, and were regarded by a prospector
as representing the outcrop of a lode of metallic iron. Their
meteoric character was however recognized' by the late Dr.
A. E. Foote, of Philadelphia; and in cutting through one
of the masses, to form a slab, he discovered certain hard
grains, which Professor G. A. Koenig, on careful examina-
tion, pronounced to be veritable Diamonds ! This remarkable

74 The Diamond.

discovery has since been amply confirmed by many scientific
observers in various parts of the world.

On dissolving the Arizona meteorites, by means of
acids, the Diamond may be liberated from their imprison-
ment in the iron, since they resist all solvent action. If,
now, as pointed out by Sir W. Crookes, these masses of iron,
as they lay exposed upon the ground had been gradually
attacked by atmospheric agencies, and eaten away as so
much rust, all the metal would have disappeared, while the
Diamonds set free would have been found scattered over
the soil, and might then have been naturally regarded as
terrestrial minerals. Hence the startling suggestion is
forced upon us that some of the Diamonds found in sands,
gravels, and other superficial deposits on the surface of the
earth, especially where only a single Diamond is now and
then picked up — may, after all, have been originally
dropped from the sky in the shape of meteoric matter, and
be therefore literally a direct gift from Heaven !

DIAMOND.

Composition ... ... ... Pure Carbon.

Specific Gravity ... ... 3 '51 to 3-52.

Hardness ... ... ... 10.

System of Crystallization . . . Isometri'c or cubical

Common Forms of Crystals . . . Octahedron, Rhombic

Dodecahedron, Hexakis Octahedron, &c.

CHAPTER II.

AFRICAN DIAMONDS.

dealing with the geographical distribution
of Diamonds, the stones of each locality
will be described in a separate chapter,
and the several localities will be taken in
their alphabetical order. It is not, however, a mere
alphabetical accident which places Africa at the head of
the diamond-yielding localities, for during the last thirty
years the yield of the South African mines has been
without a parallel in any other part of the world, and
probably without a parallel at any period of the world's
history.

Although South Africa has risen as a diamond-
producing locality within the recollection of the present
generation, much evidence may be adduced in support of
the view that Diamonds were known and worked there at
a very remote period. Thus, the Monastery Mine, in the
Orange Free State, though unknown in modern ages until
a few years ago, had evidently been previously worked and
abandoned — the ancient workings probably going back to
prehistoric times. Implements wrought in stone and
bronze have been discovered in the deserted mine,
associated with human skeletons ; and it is hoped that the
scientific examination of these relics by competent experts
may throw light upon the date of the old workings. It
may be added, that Mr. W. II. Penning also believes from
his discoveries of stone implements at Kimberley that the

76 African Diamonds.

Diamonds of that district were known to, and worked by,
a prehistoric people. My own view is that South Africa
may have supplied the Diamonds used by Moses in the
High Priest's breast-plate, as well as the precious stones
which the Queen of Sheba presented to King Solomon.
Moreover, the resemblance of the Diamonds of the
Monastery Mine to Indian stones raises the suggestion
that this may have been the original source of many
so-called Indian Diamonds, — a suggestion which receives
support from the fact that the present yield of the mines
of India is extremely small.

It appears certain that the presence of Diamonds in
South Africa was known to European colonists in the
middle of the last century ; and the words " Here be
Diamonds" are to be seen inscribed across our modern
territory of Griqualand West, in a Mission Map of 1750.
The old Dutch residents of Cape Town appear to have
been quite astir about the matter on several occasions, but
years passed on and the ancient rumours died away.

Rather more than thirty years ago, it happened
that a child of Mr. Jacobs, a Dutch farmer settled at the
Cape, amused himself by collecting pebbles from the
neighbourhood of the farm, near Hopetown At first sight
there might stem nothing remarkable in this circumstance,
for pretty pebbles were to be had in plenty near the
neighbouring river. One of these stones, however, was
sufficiently bright to attract the keen eye of the mother,
though she regarded it simply as a curious pebble, and
gave it little more than a passing glance. Some time
afterwards a neighbouring boer, Mr. Schalk van Niekirk.
visited the farm, and, knowing him to be curious in such
matters, Mrs. Jacobs called his attention to the bright
transparent stone. So little heed, however, had been given

African Diamonds. 77

to the pebble, that when wanted it was nowhere to be
found ; and it was only after diligent search that it was at
last discovered outside the house, just where it had happened
to fall when the child had last used it as a plaything. Van
Niekirk was sorely puzzled with the stone, yet thinking
that it might possibly have some value, offered to buy it
of Mrs. Jacobs. The good woman laughed at the notion
of selling so common a stone, and at once gave it to the
enquiring farmer.

Just then it chanced that Mr. J. O'Reilly was returning
from an expedition in the interior, and to him Van Niekirk
confided the stone, with a request that he would endeavour
to ascertain its nature from any trustworthy mineralogist
whom he might meet. By O'Reilly the stone was
taken to the town of Colesberg. Few people at this time
believed that Diamonds occurred in South Africa, and
when O'Reilly cut his initials on a window-pane of the
hotel at Colesberg, it was supposed that he was using
simply a fragment of common quartz or rock crystal.

Notwithstanding the ridicule of the bystanders,O'Reilly
clung bravely to the notion that he had got a Diamond
and he afterwards showed the stone to Mr. Lorenzo Boyes,
the Clerk of the Peace of the district. Mr, Boyes knew
that his friend, Dr. G. W. Atherstone, of Graham's Town,
was an excellent mineralogist ; and, anxious to get his
opinion, he sent the enigmatical stone through the post,
accompanied by an explanatory- letter. When it reached
Graham's Town, the good doctor had some difficulty in
deciding what the curious pebble could be, and he consulted
Bishop Ricard. After carefully examining its physical
characteristics, after testing its degree of hardness, its
density, and its behaviour when subjected to optical tests
by means of polarized light, they were bold enough to

78 African Diamonds.

pronounce it a genuine Diamond! This was in March, 1 867,
and the Universal Exhibition in Paris was about to open in
the spring. What more [appropriate, the doctor thought,
than to send this stone to Paris ? Here was the greatest
novelty the Colony could exhibit — the first African
Diamond of modern days !

Dr. Atherstone accordingly communicated his sug-
gestion to the Colonial Secretary, the Hon. R. Southey,
and in consequence of this suggestion the Diamond was
duly conveyed by steamer to Cape Town, where it was
examined by the French Consul, M. Heriette, who having
confirmed Atherstone's determination as to the stone, for-
warded it in due course to Paris. There it stood during
the whole summer, and having been examined by savants
of all nations, it was purchased at the close of the Exhibi-
tion by Sir Philip Woodhouse, at that time the Governor
of the Colony, for the sum of £500. The weight of this
Diamond was 2iT3^ carats.

Such is the history of the discovery of the first Cape
Diamond of modern times. O'Reilly soon afterwards
found a second stone weighing 8^j carats, which realised
£200. This man may therefore, be justly regarded as the
pioneer in this century of the great Diamond-mining in-
dustry of South Africa.

Mr. Van Niekerk, who also played an important part
in the early history of the Diamond fields, shortly after-
wards obtained from a native a Diamond weighing 83^
carats, which he sold in Hopetown for £11,200. This
stone when cut, became known as the " Star of South
Africa." Other discoveries, rapidly following one another,
led to the modern development of the great Diamond-
fields of South Africa.

8o African Diamonds.

speculate as to the possible effects of further metamorphosis
upon the graphite, and have thus dimly seen in the
vegetable fossils of the karoo formation the ultimate
origin of the South African Diamonds. Quite recently
Dr. Friedlander has suggested, on experimental evidence,
that the Diamonds may have been formed by the action
of a molten silicate, like olivine, on graphite ; and the late
Prof. Carvill Lewis held that the South African Diamonds
had probably been formed by the action of an olivine rock,
or peridotite, on the carbonaceous matter of the karoo
shales, Many other observers, however, are disposed to
refer the Diamonds to a much deeper subterranean origin.

In certain places the lacustrine shales and sandstones
of the karoo-formation are cut through by dykes or veins
of various eruptive rocks, known popularly as " trap ; 7>
whilst in other places similar igneous rocks are spread out
in sheets, intercalated between the sedimentary strata.
Varying considerably in their characters in different local-
ities, some of them exhibit a vesicular texture, and contain
in their bubble-like cavities kernels of Chalcedony, Agate,
Jasper, and other siliceous minerals. By the disintegration
of such rocks, the hard Agates and kindred stones are set
free, and carried down as pebbles by the rivers. Indeed
the shingle of the Orange and Vaal Rivers has long been
famous for the beauty of its Agates and other pebbles. In
addition, however, to these attractive chalcedonic pebbles,
the shingle contains a great variety of other minerals,
among which there is one of paramount interest — the
Diamond itself. It was in the agate-bearing gravels of the
Vaal and Orange Rivers that the Diamond washer origin-
ally established his "river-diggings."

The search for Diamonds along the Vaal River com-
menced in 1868. According to Mr. R. W. Murray, the

CAPE DIAMOND in Matrix.

African Diamonds. 81

earliest Diamond-searching party was formed in Bethulie
under Mr. J. B. Robinson, and established themselves near
Hebron. Then followed a party from Natal, who set to
work with intelligence — systematically digging the soil
from the banks of the Vaal, and washing it in a cradle for
Diamonds just as they might cradle it for gold. Another
party from Kaffraria established themselves at Klipdrift,
on the other side of the Vaal. Klipdrift was afterwards
called Barkly. Still later, another contingent of fortune-
hunters were led to dig near a hill named Pniel, and thus
founded the famous Pniel workings opposite Barkly West.
Although the river-diggings declined in importance
after the discovery of the " dry-diggings,'* they will always
be of great interest from the fact that they represent the
earliest workings in the South-African Diamond-districts
in modern times, and they still produce the finest quality
of Diamonds. The river-drifts are worked in very primitive
fashion, but the stones realize about 40 per cent, more than
those obtained from the Kimberley mines. It has been
suggested that the materials of the Vaal gravels have been
brought down from the head waters of the river, but it seems
equally probable, that the Diamonds may have been intro-
duced into the gravels at some other part of the course of
the stream. In fact, the late Mr. Tobin, the pioneer of the
author's Diamond Expedition Party, in 1870, showed that
the source of the Vaal is in sandstone, and that the agate
pebbles are not to be found in the stream until after it has
traversed a distance of several miles.

It was soon found that the Diamond-bearing gravels
are not confined to the present bed of the river. Terraces
of similar gravels run along the margins of the river, at a
considerable elevation, and many of the larger Diamonds
are found in these old high-level gravels. But, in addition

82 African Diamonds.

to the deposits along the margins of the river valleys, there
are superficial accumulations of gravel, sand, and clay
widely spread over a vast area of the country. These
wide-spread deposits of drift conceal the surface, rising up
the sides and covering the summits of the little hills which
form so marked a feature in the scenery of the Diamond
districts. These hillocks, or knolls, which in some cases
attain to a height of upwards of 100 feet, are known locally
as kopjes, and the discovery of Diamonds on some of these
kopjes led originally to the establishment of the famous
" dry diggings."

The most remarkable group of Diamond mines in the
world is formed by the celebrated workings known as
Kimberley, De Beers, Du Toit's Pan, Bultfontein, and
Wesselton Mines. The origin of these mines is of great
interest. A Dutch Boer, named Van Wyk, who occupied
a farm house at Du Toit's Pan, was surprised to find Dia-
monds actually embedded in the walls of his house, which
had been built of mud from a neighbouring pond. This
led to examination of the surrounding soil, wherein Dia-
monds were found, On deepening the digging, Diamonds
were still brought " to light ; nor did they cease when the
bed-rock was at length reached. Such was the origin of
the famous Du Toit's Pan.

The estate known as Vooruitzigt was the property
of Mr. De Beer, and after Diamonds had been discovered
at Du Toit's Pan and Bultfontein, workings were com-
menced there with such success that a mining camp soon
sprang up, known as Old De Beers. In July, 1871, a fresh
centre of discovery was reported at a small hill or
kopje situated at only about a mile from De Beer's,
where a young man, having taken shelter from the sun
under a mimosa - bush, accidently found a Diamond

African Diamonds. 83

by scraping the soil with his knife. A rush natur-
ally ensued, and the locality became known as " Colesberg
Kopje," or the " New Rush," while the surrounding
town, which to meet the wants of the new comers
sprang up with mushroom - like celerity, received the
name of Kimberley, in compliment to the Earl of
Kimberley; at that 'time H.M.'s Secretary of State for the
Colonies. The town of Kimberley lies between the
workings of the Kimberley mine and De Beers. Bultfontein,
one of the earliest mines, originally belonged to Mr. Du
Plooy, who sold it in 1870.

Early in 1891 Diamonds were discovered on the farm
known as Benaudheidfontein, in the district of Kimberley,
and as this farm was the property of Mr. J. J. Wessels>
senior, the mine came to be krfown as the Wesselton.

The site of each Diamond mine is a more or less
circular area, surrounded by horizontal shales, the edges of
which are slightly turned upwards round the margin of the
area. This evidently suggests that the shales, which were
originally horizontal, have been pushed aside by the
intrusion of matter forced from below. Indeed, all
geologists now maintain that the Diarriond-bearing rock is
of eruptive origin, being probably to some extent a kind of
volcanic mud, and has passed upwards in columnar pipes,
and been thrust through the surrounding shales.

The upper portion of each pipe was found to consist
of the reddish sandy soil of the country, and below this
came a layer of calcareous tufa, or a light deposit of
carbonate of lime ; and it was by no means uncommon to
find Diamonds adherent to this tufaceous rock. At a still
lower depth, the main contents of the pipe were reached,
which consisted in large part of an altered volcanic rock, in
places much broken up, and passing into a breccia. The

84 African Diamonds.

upper part of the rock was oxidised by meteoric agencies,
and was known, from its color, as " yellow earth." This
passed downwards into the " blue ground," the colour of
which suggests that the iron present has not reached the
condition of peroxide.

The exact nature of the blue earth puzzled petrologists
for a long time ; but the rock was carefully examined by
Prof. Nevil Story-Maskelyne, and afterwards on the Contin-
ent by many petrographers, especially by Cohen and
Stelzner in Germany, and by Fouque and Levy, in France ;
and more recently in this country by Prof. Bonney and
Miss Raisin. The late Prof. Carvill Lewis suggested that
the blue Diamond-bearing rock should be distinguished
under the name of Kimberlite. The base of the rock is
generally a soft mineral, soapy to the touch, and of green
or bluish color. By the late Prof. A. Stelzner, of the Mining
Academy of Freiberg in Saxony, the blue matrix was re-
garded as an altered olivine-diabase ; the whole rock being
more or less serpentinized. The diamantiferous material
in the pipes is however, not a distinct species of rock, but
a mixture — partly of matter erupted from below and partly
of altered sedimentary rocks. It contains angular fragments
of shale, associated with various minerals, such as pyrope,
or chrome-garnet, chrome-diopside of bright green colour^
enstatite, mica, vaalite, zircon, cyanite, hornblende, barytes,
magnetite, chromite, titaniferous iron-ore, perofskite, etc.

But the only minerals that attract the miner's attention
are the Diamonds. These are sparkling pretty freely through
the " stuff ; " sometimes as beautifully formed crystals, but
frequently as mere fragments and splinters. They are said
to be most abundant in the neighbourhood of doleritic
dykes, but their distribution is very irregular ; in one claim
they may be richly disseminated, whilst in the neighbouring

African Diamonds. 85

claim they are but sparsely scattered through the rock.
Microscopic crystals of Diamond are disseminated through
the blue earth. Each matrix is said to yield Diamonds
easily distinguished from those of other pipes, so that buyers
on the field can generally tell, on looking at a stone, from
which locality it has been obtained. These local peculiar-
ities suggest that the stones have been formed in or near
the centres where they are now found, though probably at
great depths. In support of this view, it has been pointed
out that most of the crystals are sharp at the edges, and
exhibit no signs of abrasion, such as we might expect to
find had they been transported far from their original site ;
but on the other hand, a large proportion of the crystals
have evidently been shattered, and exist now as mere frag-
ments,showing that the rocks have suffered great disturbance,
probably during their projection to the surface from some
deep-seated source.

It is interesting to note the nature of the rocks through
which the volcanic material must have forced its way up-
wards. Beneath the red soil of the country is a decom-
posed basalt, and this is followed by black carbonaceous
shales, dipping slightly to the north. The shales are from
200 to 250 feet in thickness, and it was suggested by the late
Prof. Carvill Lewis, that the Diamonds may have resulted
from the action of the olivine rock on the carbon of these
shales. Beneath the shale is a bed of conglomerate, which
rests upon an amygdaloidal olivine-diabase, often described
as a melaphyre, and representing an old lava-flow, about
400 feet thick. The rock beneath this ancient lava is a
quartzite of great but undetermined thickness.

Igneous dykes penetrate these rocks almost vertically.
One of the most interesting of these dykes is the large
mass in De Beers' mine, known as the " Snake." According

86 African Diamonds.

to Stelzner this rock is a pikrite-porphyry, much altered,
and he believes that, though destitute of Diamonds, it was
derived from the same subterranean source whence the
blue earth took its rise.

The volcanic material rising from below, and bringing
with it the Diamonds, ascended the pipes ; but these were
not all rilled at the same time, nor was the blue earth
of one pipe due to a single ascent of the material.
Thus both in De Beers' and in Kimberley the " blue " of
the west side is unlike that of any other part of the mine ;
it carries but few Diamonds and these present distinctive
characteristics.

An ingenious hypothesis regarding the origin of the
Diamond-bearing pipes and their contents has recently
been enunciated by Sir William Crookes, who has lately
returned from a visit to South Africa. He suggests that
a solution of the perplexing problem as to the genesis
of the South African Diamond may be readily found in
the assumption that they have been formed from deep-
seated masses of metallic iron in a molten condition, under
enormous pressure and at a temperature so high as to be
comparable to that of our electric furnaces. This molten
iron held carbon in solution, and on solidifying under
pressure the carbon would crystallize out as Diamond, just
as it does in M. Moissan's experiments ; only in nature
the pressure might be vastly greater than in our labor-
atories and the process of cooling might be continued
through ages of time, so that large crystals would be
produced by natural means, whereas the crystals formed in
our laboratory experiments are mere microscopic specks.
If water, passing downwards, gained access to the heated
materials, it would give rise tc vast volumes of steam and
other gaseous products, which rushing upwards could rend

African Diamonds. 87

the rocks, and so force open the channels which we recognize
as the " pipes." The vapour rushing up these pipes might
tear the shales and other rocks forming the walls, and thus
give rise to fragmentary materials to be caught in the
uprising pasty magma, producing as it cooled a brecciated
mass. The pipes have thus become filled with a medley
of materials, partly brought up from great depths, and
partly due to the disintegration of the local rocks. But
the Diamonds which give supreme value to the breccia
have been formed in a deep-seated laboratory under the
pipes, where carbon has crystallized from a saturated bath
of iron, under prodigious pressure, and with inconceivable
slowness.

In the early days of Diamond-mining in South Africa,
the ground in these volcanic necks was worked as quarries,
or open casts, and the material was hauled up by means
of aerial wire ropes. Much inconvenience however was
experienced as the diggings grew deeper, especially by the
heavy falls of the surrounding shales, or "reef," which
tended to slip in large masses into the workings. More-
over, the shales contained iron-pyrites, which occasionally
ignited spontaneously, with disastrous results.

An entirely different system of working was therefore
introduced at the Kimberley Mine, and this was soon
followed at De Beers. Shafts were sunk at a convenient
distance from the pipes, and successive galleries driven
into the Diamond-bearing ground, as in the ordinary
system of underground mining. The rock is brought down
by drilling and blasting, and is run in trucks to the bottom
of the shaft, up which it is hoisted in skips running on
steel rails and worked by a steam winding-engine. The
mines are fitted with all modern improvements, such as
electric lamps and telephones connecting the different
centres of work.

88 African Diamonds.

Arrived at the surface, the blue earth is conveyed to
a platform of considerable altitude, from whence it is
allowed to fall to the ground below. By this means the
earth is broken up and crushed until the process has reduced
it down to the size of a walnut, or less. It is then searched
for large diamonds, and after these have been abstracted
the stuff is gravitated through a machine consisting of six
plates, each of which is covered with a layer of fat. In
passing over these plates the diamonds are retained by the
fat, to which they adhere, whilst the refuse is rejected and
passed through the machine. So reliable is this " separator "
in its working that we have, on the authority of Mr. C, D.
Rudd, who has just returned from South Africa, the re-
markable statement that 90 per cent of the diamonds
contained in the blue earth are found on the first plate,
and he has never known of one being found below the
second plate.

It is estimated that every load (a load weighs about
i, 600 pounds) of blue ground from the Kimberley mine
yields on an average from one and a quarter to one and a
half carats of Diamonds ; from De Beer's mine, one and a
fifth to one and a third carats ; from Du Toit's Pan one-
sixth to one-fifth carat ; and from Bultfontein only one-
fifth to one- third of a carat.

The mines of De Beers, Kimberley, Du Toit's Pan,
Bultfontein and Wesselton are practically under the control
of the powerful combination known as " De Beers
Consolidated Mines, Limited." This Company, of whicfr
the Hon. Cecil Rhodes is Chairman, has a capital of

In order to prevent the theft of Diamonds at the
mines, the native kaffirs or "boys," employed at the
Kimberley mines are confined in an enclosed village, or

CRYSTAL OF YELLOW CAPE DIAMOND.

African Diamonds. 89

41 compound," and the strictest supervision is exercised over
them. The Diamond trade is regulated on the fields by
the " Diamond Trade Act," known commonly as the
" I.D.B. Act," its object being to prevent Illicit Diamond
Buying. But, notwithstanding its stringency and the
seventy of the punishment accorded by the Special Court,
the I.D.B. trade still flourishes.

One of the most interesting features in the Diamond
production of South Africa is the large number of stones
of unusual size which have been brought to light. Among
those found in the river washings attention may be called
to the famous "Stewart," which was found in 1872, at
Waldeck's Plant, on the Vaal River. It is a Diamond of
light yellow colour, beautifully crystallized, and weighed in
its rough state 288| carats, or nearly two ounces troy.

One of the finest South African ^Diamonds ever dis-
covered was found on February:Ti:2, 1880, in a claim at
Kimberley, belonging to Mr. Porter Rhodes. It is true
that in weight it has been exceeded by many other stones,
but in purity of colour it has very few rivals. It weighs
150 carats, and placed by the side of Cape stones, having
a slight tendency to yellowish tints, it seems to present
the faintest possible shade of blue. This magnificent
" blue-white " Diamond, which was valued by its owner
at £200,000, was publicly exhibited at Streeter's Museum
in Bond Street.

Stones weighing over an ounce (151. 5 carats) are by
no means unfrequent at Kimberley. The largest Diamond
ever found in either of the mines at Kimberley was a noble
octahedral crystal from De Beer's weighing in the rough
42g^ carats. This stone was sent to the Paris Exhibition
of i889;whereit was cut to a brilliant weighing 22
carats. It is known as the " Victoria."

90 African Diamonds.

At Jagersfontein, in the Orange River Free State, a
Diamond of 209^ carats was discovered, and it is said that
this magnificent stone was purchased from a kaffir by an
illicit Diamond buyer for the absurd sum of £1$. A
Diamond weighing over 600 carats, but very impure, was
unearthed some years ago at these diggings, and the same
mine has since yielded the largest Diamond ever recorded.
This stone, known as " The Excelsior," weighed in the
rough 970 carats, and is now being cut at Amsterdam.
A figure of the stone in its rough state forms the tail-piece
appended to this chapter (p. 95).

While South Africa has thus been remarkable for
yielding stones of exceptionally large size, it must also be
admitted that the quality of the gems brought to light is
by no means unsatisfactory. True, a large number of the
Diamonds are " off-coloured " stones, generally exhibiting
a delicate straw-tint, but none the less they are extremely
brilliant when properly cut. A very fair proportion of
the South African Diamonds are of the first -water,
rivalling in beauty and purity the finest Brazilian and
Indian Stones. This is especially the case with the Dia-
monds from the Jagersfontein and Koffyfontein mines in
the Orange Free State. With regard to the Kimberley
mines it is found that iron pyrites exists in large quantities,
and the theory has been broached that to this cause is due
the extraordinarily large number of coloured or " off-colour"
stones, that are found there ; while in the Jagersfontein
mine iron pyrites is not found, and nearly all the Diamonds
found there are the purest white. The great majority of
these stones are not only pure in colour, but splendid
crystals, symmetrical in shape and readily cut.

It has been estimated that about 20 per cent, of the
Cape Diamonds are of the first quality ; 15 per cent.-

African Diamonds. gi

of the second ; and 20 per cent, of the third ; the re-
mainder being " bort." The average value of rough Dia-
monds at a sale on the Fields is as follows : " River," 6$s. ;
"Jar," 455-.; "Du Toil's Pan," 28^.; "Kimberley and De
Beers," 2is. to 22^. 6d. ; " Bultfontein," 18^. 6d., and
" Wesselton," 2$s.

It is said that Diamonds from the Leicester mine
are mostly hard, white, cross-grained stones, with an
etched or frosted appearance ; whilst those from the
Newlands' Mines, lately discovered in Griqualand West,
are well-crystallized stones of remarkable whiteness.

All Diamonds which are too impure for cutting are
now known under the general name of bort ; and these
possess a fixed market value, the powder which they
yield when crushed, being used for cutting and polishing
Diamonds and other stones, and in the engraving of
gems of exceptional hardness.

Notwithstanding the enormous number of Diamonds
which have been brought to light during the recent
workings in South Africa, it is notable that, so far as the
author knows, no Carbonado — the black, impure variety
of Diamond found in Brazil — has yet been discovered
though the ilmenite, or titaniferous iron-ore, sometimes
passes improperly under the name of " carbon."

The following information is interesting as giving the
latest results of working at the various Diamond Mines of
South Africa : —

Produce of the DE BEERS MINE. — Out-put of Blue or
Diamond-bearing Ground. — To end of June, 1897.
The out-put for the year from this mine was
1,542,963 loads, of 1 6 cubit feet, which was mined

92 African Diamonds.

from the various levels as follows : —

740 and 770 foot levels ... 111,079 loads

800 foot level 121,238 „

840 „ „ ... I45P45 ,»

880 „ „ 175,225 „

920 „ „ 246,184 „

960 „ „ 3i5,38o „

1,000 „ „ 238,227 „

1,040 „ „ -•• 70,378 »

i ,080 „ „ 45,4io „

1,120 „ „ 1,924 „

Development Work 72,873 „

1,542,963 »

The total cost of mining and depositing was $s. \"jd.
per load of blue ground, as against 4^. J'jd. for the previous
year. The out- put is practically the same as for 1896,
while the total expenditure is £36,000 greater.

Everything is being and will be done to bring about
the same condition of things in De Beers as in Kimberley
Mine. The problems are not the same, for in the
Kimberley Mine the debris had fallen down as the blue
ground was extracted, and had left the hard rock (mela-
phyre) exposed to view, and it could be seen where the
streams of water flowed into the open mine ; but in
De Beers no hard rock has yet been exposed, and the
miners have to grope in the dark, as it were, to find out
where the water enters the open or worked-out portion
of the mine,

The cost of washing was 2s. i'8d., as against 2s. 7'$d.
per load for the previous year. The average cost of
winning and washing the Diamonds was Js. 3*5^., as against
js. $'6d. per load for the year 1896.

African Diamonds. 93

In June, 1897, the 2 mines had on the floor, 3,082,599
loads of blue earth, valued at is. 6d. a load, and worth
£231,194, iSs. 6d.

Produce of the KiMBERLEY MINE.— Out-put of Blue
Ground. — To end of June, 1 897. The total quantity
of blue ground hoisted from the mine was 972,926
loads, which had been extracted from the various
levels as follows : —
No. 14 or 1,005 foot level

„ 15 „ 1,045

„ 16 „ 1,085

„ 17 „ 1,120

„ 18 „ 1,160

„ 19 „ 1,200

„ 20 „ i ..240

„ 21 „ 1,280

„ 22 „ 1,320

„ 23 „ 1,360

„ 24 „ 1,400

„ 25 „ 1,440

„ 26 „ 1,480

„ 27 „ 1,520

972,926

At the Kimberley Mine the best day's work\from
the 1,200 foot level was 5,131 loads in 12 hours, and since
winding has been going on from the 1520 foot level, the
maximum out-put for 12 hours has been 4,675 loads.

THE WESSELTON MINE. — As soon as this mine's output
became serious, having in June, 1897, produced
271,777 loads, valued at I/-, =£13,588 17^. od, the
De Beers Company thought it best to buy it up so
as to keep up the monopoly in their hands.

94 African Diamonds

Du Toil's PAN AND BULTFONTEIN. — De Beers Com-
pany own these mines, also with others below, but
have stopped working them, in fact, shut them up.
In Bultfontein there are still a few claims owned and
worked by a separate company, but the result is
thought to be very poor.

JAGERSFONTEIN. — De Beers Company has acquired a pre-
ponderating interest in Jagersfontein, which is in
the Orange Free State. It is being actively workedj
and produces a fair quantity, enabling them to
pay their shareholders a dividend last year of
12 per cent

THE KOFFYFONTEIN — in the Orange State, produces very
fine Diamonds, but in very small quantities, in-
sufficient to make the company a success.

THE ROBINSON.— This is situated in the Orange River
Free State. Very little is known of the capabilities
of this mine, beyond that Diamonds have been found
in it of very distinctive character, but none have
yet been offered for sale in the market, though
" Streeter's " have cut some of very fine quality for
the parties connected with it.

LEICESTER MINE. — This mine produces a small output,
but so far the company working it is far from a
success ; still, undoubtedly, there are possibilities
of the mine becoming productive when further
developed.

THE FRANK SMITH MINE and THE OTTO'S PROSPECT
MINE — These Mines are situatedin Griqualand West,
between the Vaal and Hartz Rivers, and about 40
miles from Kimberley. These mines produce very

African Diamonds.

fine Diamonds, but whether they can be worked at
a profit has yet to be proved. Sufficient work has
not yet been done on which to form an opinion.

Outside the group worked by the De Beers Company,
the production of Diamonds from other mines is small, and
not as yet, though we cannot say what will happen,
sufficient to interfere with the practical monopoly ex-
ercised by the De Beers Company, or seriously to compete
with them in the market.

THE EXCELSIOR."

THK LARGEST KNOWN DIAMOND.

NATURAL SIZE IN ITS ROUGH STATE.

WEIGHT, 970 CARATS.

CHAPTER III.

AUSTRALIAN DIAMONDS.

jLTHOUGH three, at least, of our Australian
Colonies have yielded Diamonds, it is only
in New South Wales that they have been
found in sufficient quantity to invite system-
atic exploration. As far back as the year 1851, Mr. E.
H. Hargraves, in a Report dated from Guyong, referred
to some specimens of gold, and to a number of gems,
including what he called, rather vaguely, "a small one of
the Diamond kind," found in Reedy Creek, near Bathurst.
Mr. Stutchbury, the Government geologist, also reported
in 1851, that he had seen a finely crystallized Diamond
from the Turon River. But it was especially the late
Rev. B. W. Clarke, a gentleman well-known for his
researches in Australian geology, who first directed public
attention to the Diamonds of New South Wales. Four
specimens had been brought to him from the Macquarie
River, near Suttor's Bar, in September, 1859, and a fifth,,
the following month, from Burrendong. In the meantime
he had received Diamonds from Pyramul and Calabash
Creeks. These discoveries were considered by Mr. Clarke
so significant, that he wrote a description of the occurrence,,
boldly heading it with the startling title, "New South Wales
a Diamond country ! " This announcement was not com-
mercially justified till seven or eight years later, when the
gold rush occurred at Warburton, better known as Two-
mile flat, on the Cudgegong River, about nineteen miles

Australian Diamonds. 97

north-west of Mudgee. The Cudgegong empties itself into
the Macquarie, which is an affluent of the Darling. As
soon as the gold diggers had set to work they detected
Diamonds ; and in July, 1869, operations were conducted
by the Australian Diamond Mines' Company of Melbourne.

At the Mudgee workings, gems were found in an old
river-drift, believed to be of Pliocene age, distributed in
local patches, which are remnants of deposits once widely
spread over the district, but now partially removed by
denudation. These ancient river-gravels occur at various
distances from the actual channel, and at elevations of
forty feet or more above the level of the river. They are
generally covered by a protective layer of basalt, sometimes
columnar ; and shafts have been sunk through the basaltic
cap, so as to reach the under-lying Diamond-drift, which
rests either on vertical palaeozoic strata or on massive
greenstone. The older drifts have been in some cases
re-distributed, thus forming gravels of the Pleistocene and
later periods. The drifts contain pebbles and boulders of
Quartz, Tin-Stone, Rock-Crystal, Jasper, Agate, and other
siliceous minerals, mixed with coarse sand and clay, and
in some places united by a siliceous cement, into a compact
mass. Among the pebbles of the gravel, the diligent seeker
may find many of the rarer minerals, including crystals of
Topaz, Sapphire, Ruby, Zircon, Spinel, and Garnet ; with
Gold and Diamonds, The Diamonds are irregularly
distributed through the gravels ; but hardly in sufficient
numbers to pay for the working, though some of the
Diamonds from the Cudgegong Field are remarkable
for their beauty and purity of colour.

Within the last few years a Diamond-field has been
opened up near Bingara, New South Wales. This town

is about 400 miles north of Sydney, on the river Horton,

98 Australian Diamonds.

popularly known as the " Big River." According to Pro-
fessor Liversidge, of Sydney, the Diamond-bearing deposits
are situated in a kind of basin, about four miles long and
three miles wide, hemmed in by hills on all sides save on the
north. The Diamonds occur in Tertiary and Pleistocene
drifts, as in the Cudgegong Field. The old river-drift
rests upon rocks of Devonian or Carboniferous age, and is
partially covered by a capping of basalt. In some places
the materials of the drift are compacted together into a
conglomerate, so that the mode of occurrence of Diamonds
at Bingara strikingly resembles that at Mudgee. The
minerals composing the gravels are also generally similar
in the two cases, though points of difference are not want-
ing. One of the best indications of the presence of the
Diamond, according to the Bingara miners, is a black
Tourmaline, known locally as " Jetstone." Some of the
Diamonds are clear and colourless, others have a pale
straw-tint : all are of small size, the largest yet known
weighing about eight grains. According to an examination
of some of the Bingara drift, by the Gwydir Mining Com-
pany, a ton of "stuff" yields on an average twenty Dia-
monds. Up to August 26th, 1873, the Eaglehawk claim
had produced 1,680 Diamonds ; but as the aggregate
weighed only 803 grains troy, the very small size of the
average stone is sufficiently apparent. The general weight
of the Diamonds of New South Wales ranges from \ to
\\ carat per stone, but, though small, they are extremely
hard and brilliant. The Australian Diamond Company's
claim is situated about six miles S.W. of Bingara.

Considerable interest has been recently aroused by the
remarkable results obtained at the Monte Christo mine,
in the Bingara Diamond Fields. This mine is situated on
a hill, about 750 feet above the Gwydir River, which is four

Australian Diamonds. 99

miles distant. The drift has lost its basaltic capping,
which has been removed by denudation, and the drift itself
has probably been re-distributed. Captain Charles Rogers,
the proprietor, estimated that the wash-dirt would yield
about 30 carats of Diamond to the load of 27 cubic feet
Mr. G. A. Lawson, during a visit to the mine, obtained
122 Diamonds from one barrow-load of the drift, and 146
from a second barrow-load ; as it takes ten barrows to form
a "load," the richness of the deposit is very remarkable.
The Rev. Milne Curran states that while he was visiting
the mine, 29 small Diamonds were washed out of a
hundred-weight of the drift. He calculated, from an ex-
amination of several parcels, that about 12 per cent, of the
Diamonds are really good stones, 45 per cent, are market-
able, and 20 per cent, more may be worth cutting, whilst
the remaining 23 per cent, are useless as gems.

Of late years considerable attention has been given to
the Diamond-bearing drifts in the tin-mining districts near
Inverell, not far from the junction of Cope's Creek with the
Gwydir River. The field known as Boggy Camp is situated
about 12 miles south-west of Inverell, in the parish of Mayo,
County of Hardinge. The tin-drifts, which consist of
deposits of sand and gravel, placed between floors of basalt
above and a granitic bed-rock below, contain not only
Diamonds, Gold and Tin-stone, but such minerals as
Sapphire, Zircon, Tourmaline, Garnet and Topaz. The
famous claim known as " The Star of the South," is situated
on a hill of basalt, in which shafts have been sunk to the
underlying drift, and levels have been systematically driven
to open up the wash-dirt. In the course of eighteen
months upwards of 3,000 Diamonds were found. Mr. E.
F. Pittman, the Government Geologist of New South
Wales, stated in his official Report for 1895, that when he

ioo Australian Diamonds.

visited the field 42 loads of drift had yielded 600 carats of
Diamonds. One load of wash-dirt, of exceptional richness,
yielded no fewer than 515 Diamonds, of the aggregate
weight of 184 carats. The Diamonds are described as
similar in size and quality to those found on the Bingara
Field.

In 1897 a London Company was formed for the
purpose of working these and other deposits of Diamonds
in New South Wales, under the name of "the Inverell
Diamond Fields, Limited," with Mr. C. Barrington Brown,
as consulting engineer. The Diamonds hitherto obtained
have been only of small size, but they are extremely hard,
and when cut exhibit exceptional brilliancy.

At the Mining Exhibition held at the Crystal Palace
in 1890, Professor Liversidge, of Sydney, exhibited some
interesting Diamonds from New South Wales, including a
crystal from the Lachlan River, and a black Diamond
from Mudgee.

Compared with the Diamond discoveries in New South
Wales, those of other parts of Australia sink into insignifi-
cance. South Australia is rich in mineral treasure ; but
this treasure mostly takes the form of ores of copper and
iron ; yet the colony is not without its gold-fields, and with
the gold a few Diamonds have been found, In the year
1852, Diamonds were discovered in alluvial gold washings
in the hills near Echunga, rather less than twenty miles
south-east of Adelaide. It is said that more than a hundred
Diamonds have at different times been found in this
neighbourhood. Sir Arthur Blyth, then Agent-General for
South Australia, exhibited about twenty Diamonds from
Echunga at the Paris exhibition of 1878. One octahedral
crystal weighed 5T5B carats, and another 3^ carats. Mr.
Dodd who reported on them, called attention to their

Australian Diamonds. 101

similarity in many respects to Brazilian Diamonds, and
pointed out that they were found to be much harder than
the Diamonds of South Africa.

Whilst Victoria is pre-eminently the " Golden Colony,"
it is only now and then that a solitary Diamond has been
found there. In 1862, the discovery of a Diamond in the
Ovens district was announced by Mr. George Foord. It
was a transparent yellow crystal, with perfect edges, weigh-
ing about two grains. The Rev. J. J. Bleasdale, who
paid great attention to the study of Australian gems, de-
scribed three Victorian Diamonds — two from Beechcroft,
and the third from Collingwood Flat. There appears, how-
ever, to have been some little doubt hanging over the
reputed discoveries of Diamonds in Victoria; but in 1865
an Exhibition of Gems was held in the Hall of the Royal
Society of Victoria, and from the specimens then exhibited
and the information accompanying them, the matter was
set at rest. "The results of this exhibition," said Dr.
Bleasdale, " have now placed this important truth beyond
impeachment." Altogether about sixty Diamonds have
fceen found in the Beechworth district, but they have not
been of good colour, nor of large size, most of them weigh-
ing less than a carat.

The first Australian Diamond ever brought to this
country was presented by Sir Thomas Mitchell to the
Museum of Practical Geology, in Jermyn Street, where it
may now be seen. This small crystal weighs | of a carat,
and was found near Ophir, west of Bathurst, New South
Wales.

CHAPTER IV.

BORNEO DIAMONDS.

HERE can be no doubt that Diamonds are
very widely distributed in the island of
Borneo. Dr. Theodor Posewitz, a mining
engineer, who resided there for nearly three
years, published in Berlin, in 1889, a valuable work, in
which he discusses at great length the mineral resources of
Borneo, and gives an interesting description of the occur-
rence and production of Diamonds. Much has also been
written on the subject in the reports of the Mining De-
partment of the Dutch East Indies.

Extensive Diamond-fields exist in the rich gold-
bearing district of Tanahlaut, especially near Martapura>
in the south-east of Borneo. Kusan, in the east of the
island, is also a district of much repute for both Diamonds
and gold. But, perhaps, the most famous locality is
Landak, in Western Borneo. Landak is situated a few
miles E.N.E. of Pontianak, the capital of Dutch Borneo,
and is about three day's steam from Singapore. Sangan,
also in the west, likewise yields Diamonds, especially in
the rivers Sikajam and Meran. Finally, the Sarawak River
has, of late years been cited as a Diamond -yielding stream,
and some very fine Diamonds, both white and of rare fancy
colours, have been found there ; but the deposits can be
worked for only a few months in the year.

Borneo Diamonds. 103

At all these localities the Diamonds are found with
gold and, in some cases, with platinum, in the sands of the
rivers ; and also in beds of clay, sand and gravel, some-
times at a considerable depth. A blue or bluish-grey
Corundum, known as Batu timahan, is said to be a constant
companion of the Diamond, the natives regarding it as an
attendant on the "Prince," as they term the more precious
stone. Dr. Verbeek thinks that the original matrix of the
Diamond, which yielded the stones occurring in the drifts,
is to be found among the older slaty and schistose rocks ;
whilst the late Prof. Carvill Lewis suggested that the Dia-
monds had been brought up from depths by the serpentine,
or altered peridotite, which appears to be not uncommon
in the Diamond districts of Borneo.

The natives wash the sands of the rivers in small
bowls, and become so expert in detecting the valuable
stones that they can separate the Diamonds from the
worthless minerals, even when so small as to escape
observation by Europeans. The drifts are worked by
means of small shafts sunk through the overlying deposits,
and the Diamond-yielding bed is then followed by little
tunnels driven in a very primitive manner. Considerable
improvements have, however, been introduced by the
Chinese, who are extremely skilful and economical miners.
Of late years Europeans have entered the field, and
Diamond-mines in Tjempaka are now worked by French
engineers; but the washing of the Diamond-earth after
its extraction is said to be still done on the old Malay
system.

The Diamonds of Borneo usually occur in crystals,
presenting the form of the octahedron, the cube and the
rhombic dodecahedron. If they present bright faces and
sharp angles, and are considered by the natives to need no

IO4 Borneo Diamonds.

polishing, they are called intan mendjadi. The uncut Dia-
monds are called podi ; the cut stones intan.

According to Posewitz the following varieties are
distinguished : —

Intan Katja hitam, of bottle-green colour, and of great

value.
Buntat intan, hard, dark and not to be cut : when spherical,

they are called the " Soul of the Diamond," and are

worn as amulets.
Intan- ajer-Laut, or Sea Water Diamonds, of pale blue

colour.
Radja intan, or King of Diamonds ; of red colour, very

rare.

Intan minjak, brown Diamonds.
Cliaping, triangular flat twin crystals.

The largest Borneo Diamond discovered of late years
was found in 1865 at the diggings of M. Beretti at
Tjempaka. It weighed in the rough 25 carats, and when
cut 18^ carats.

A Diamond of 77 carats was found near Gunong Lawak,
in South Borneo, and passed into the possession of the
Sultan of Martapura. It is said that a Diamond weighing
70 carats, known as " Segima," is the property of the
Sultan of Matan.

The art of cutting and polishing Diamonds has long
been parctised by the natives of Borneo, and is rather
extensively carried on at Pontianak and Martapura.
In the case of octahedral crystals, they simply rub down
the solid angles at the top and bottom, and having
polished these culets regarded the work as complete, never
allowing the stone to lose weight by cutting facets on
the sides

Borneo Diamonds. 105

Of late years the Diamond-industry of Borneo has
suffered a serious decline. This is due partly to the fact
that the superficial deposits have been mostly worked
out, and the working of the drifts below is expensive and
troublesome : the rulers, too, do but little to encourage
Diamond working, as they claim all the large stones for
themselves, and exact a royalty on the small ones. But
the chief cause of the depression is, no doubt, traceable
to the influx of Diamonds from South Africa, and con-
sequent depreciation in the value of the Borneo stones.
If, however the deeper Diamond-drifts, which have as
yet been scarcely touched, were systematically worked
on a large scale by Europeans, with scientific appliances,
there seems reason to believe that the Diamond industry of
Borneo might be successfully and profitably revived. It
is very notable that Borneo has produced more " fancy
stones," or beautifully coloured Diamonds of the rarer tint,
such as red, green, and blue, than any other known country,
and what is still more curious a smaller number of pale
yellow and off-coloured stones.

CHAPTER V.

BRAZILIAN DIAMONDS.

N washing the sands of some of the Brazilian
rivers, for sake of the gold which they con-
tained, the natives in the early part of the
last century occasionally lighted upon little
hard stones of pecular shape, which they regarded as of no
value ; and therefore either threw them away, or used them
as counters in card -playing. It was not until 1727, that
Bernardo da Fonseca Lobo, an inhabitant of Serra do Frio
in the gold district of Minas-Gerae?, accidentally discovered
the true nature of these stones. He had seen rough
Diamonds in India, and the likeness to these was so striking
that he took a number to Portugal for sale, and thus drew
general observation towards the new Diamond mines. Such
at least is the story told of the discovery of the Brazilian
Diamond fields.

The European merchants, who up to that time had
obtained their Diamonds from India, were frightened lest
this discovery should cause a fall in the. price of the gems
in their possession. They consequently spread the report
that the Brazilian Diamonds were only the refuse of the
Indian stones, forwarded to Goa, and then to Brazil, just
as when the South African Diamond fields were discovered,
it was said that they yielded only yellow stones, of little
or no value.

Brazilian Diamonds. 107

The Portuguese, however, turned the tables, and sent
the Brazilian Diamonds to Goa, and thence to Bengal
where they were offered for sale as Indian stones, and
obtained Indian prices.

It is only within the last few years that the Diamond-
bearing rocks of Brazil have been sufficiently studied to
enable geologists to spe^k with anything like confidence,
in regard to their nature and their age. They have now,
however, been thoroughly examined, especially by Prof.
Gorceix, the head of the School of Mines at Ouro Preto,
the capital of Minas-Geraes, and by Prof. Orville A. Derby,
of the Geological Survey of Sao Paolo. Sections have
been made of the strata, of which the Diamond-bearing
provinces are composed, and a satisfactory sequence has
been established.

The mode of occurrence of Diamonds at Diamantina,
(formerly called Tejuco), in the province of Minas-Geraes
may fairly be taken as typical of the workings throughout
the country. It was here that Diamonds were originally
discovered in Brazil, and it was to this district that the
workings were for a long time restricted. Diamantina
itself is situated along the crest, and on both flanks of the
great interior mountain range of Brazil, which, at a general
height of about 4,000 feet above the level of the sea,
divides the waters of the Sao Francisco on the west, from
those of the Doce Jequetinhonha and other rivers on the
east. The northward prolongation of the range includes
the Diamond regions of Grao Mogol, in the province of
Minas-Geraes, and that of the so-called Chapada Dia-
mantina in Bahia.

A very important group of rocks stretches from the
former to the latter of these rivers. This group has been
called the Itacolumite series, from the occurrence of

io8 Brazilian Diamonds.

Itacolumite^ a rock which was named by Eschwege, from
the Serra do Itacolumi. The true Itacolumite of petro-
logists is a sandstone, remarkable for possessing flexibility,
so that a thin slab admits of being readily bent to and fro.
This pecular rock is, however, only a rare variety of the
Itacolumite, most of which is a granular schistose quartzite,
or metamorphic sandstone, destitute of flexibility.

The Brazilian Itacolumite long figured in works on
mineralogy as the original matrix — the true parent-rock
— of the Diamond ; and the occurrence of a somewhat
similar rock with Diamonds in India and in North Carolina
led to premature generalizations as to the origin of the
gem.

In the geological section under description, the Itaco-
lumites are associated with a group of hydro-mica schists
and Itaberites, or schists containing specular iron-ore.
Traversing these rocks are certain more or less defined
veins of clayey matter containing Diamonds. The mineral
is here supposed to occur in its primitive position, the
clayey material being probably its decaying matrix. Dia-
monds are also found in the quartzites of an overlying
series, but here they are to be regarded as pebbles washed
out of their original home in the lower group of rocks.
They are likewise distributed through the gravels of the
Brazilian Highlands, where they find a resting-place after
having been set free from their enclosing matrix. It is
possible then that a Diamond, born originally in the
lower metamorphic series, may have been transported
among the materials which enter into the constitution of
the upper series, and then on the wearing down of these
upper rocks, may have been once more disturbed, and
finally deposited in the gravels of the present river valleys.
Such appears to be the geological history of many a
Brazilian Diamond.

Brazilian Diamonds. 109

The Diamond washings in the neighbourhood of
Diamantina are performed either in old river gravels or in
the beds of rivers, in whose bottoms continuous pot-holes
or canons are found, filled with the Diamond-bearing
gravel. The courses of the rivers are turned by means
of temporary dams or wooden sluices, and the Diamond-
bearing gravel hollowed out. The principal minerals
associated with the Diamond are anatase, rutile, brookite>
specular iron, martite, topaz, tourmaline, and native gold.

At Sao Joao da Chapada, about 12 miles to the west
of Diamantina, the Diamond occurs embedded in clay, or
barro, under the conditions which have been described by
Prof. O. A. Derby. The clay contains grains of quartz
and microscopic tourmalines, but the rock from which it
has been derived by decomposition has not been definitely
detected.

About 100 miles north of Diamantina, on the Corrego
dos Bois, near Grao Mogol, the Diamond has been found
in a solid conglomerate rock named by the miners
" Pigeons' Eggs." This was formerly regarded as the
Itacolumite, but has been identified with the upper series,
overlying the true Itacolumite group. In 1839 about 2,000
people flocked here to work.

Diamonds occur in the valley of the River Tibagy
(in the Province of Parana, in Southern Brazil) and in its
tributaries the Yapo and Pitangru. The stones are found
not only in the sands of the river, especially in pot-holes,
but in old beds of gravel at some distance above the
present level of the river, where " dry washings " have been
established. The story told of the discovery of Diamonds
here is, that a labourer, living close to Tibagy, produced
a tiny bamboo stem, the open end of which was stuffed
with a twisted leaf of milho ; on extracting this, some small,

r 10 Brazilian Diamonds.

but good Diamonds were found in the hollow stem. On
pursuing this investigation further, most of the workmen's
huts in the immediate neighbourhood were found to have
some such stones hidden within them ; but the gems were
as a rule, small, hardly ever exceeding one carat in weight.
According to Prof. O. A. Derby, who examined the
Tibagy Diamond-workings geologically, the gems appear
to be derived from the Devonian sandstone, through which
the river flows; but the materials of the sandstone are them-
selves derived from the metamorphic rocks. Gold is widely
distributed through the Tibagy district, and the Diamonds,
though usually small, are of good colour and great brilliancy .
The author, some years ago, joined a syndicate to work the
sands in the bed of the Tibagy, but though both Gold
and Diamonds were found they did not occur in sufficient
quantities to render the working remunerative, and the
Tibagy Diamond-fields were consequently abandoned.

The most important districts of the deposits of
Diamond-bearing gravel in Brazil lie between 12 degs.
and 26 degs. south latitude, including the provinces of
Minas-Geraes, Bahia, Goyaz, Mato Grosso, Parana and
S. Paulo.

The supply of Diamonds was greatly increased in the
early part of this century, by the discovery of new and
richer mines in the province of Bahia, the stones of which
are called in commerce Bahias. The yield from these
mines, although considerable in quantity, is, however
defective in size, and inferior in average quality. The
proportion of pure stones is less, and of the " off-coloured "
varieties greater, than in the produce of other mines ;
nevertheless, the exceptionally fine stones are as beautiful
as any hitherto discovered elsewhere.

Brazilian Diamonds. 1 1 1

With the Diamonds of Bahia is found an impure black,
grey, or brown crystalline carbon, known in commerce
as Carbonado^ and highly valued for mounting in the steel
drill-heads used for Diamond-boring — a purpose for which
neither crystalline Diamond nor bort is applicable. This
will be referred to at length in a subsequent chapter.

In 1772 the Government of Brazil first worked the
Diamond mines on its own account. Rich as the fields were,
the cost was enormous, and every carat weight of Diamonds
cost the Government from fifteen to eighteen shillings,
against six shillings and sevenpence in South Africa.

The profit made in Minas-Geraes was formerly very
considerable. In the first twenty years 144,000 carats
of Diamonds were found annually. Up to 1850 this
Province had yielded about 5,844,000 carats of Diamonds
valued at £9,000,000! If, in addition to this, we consider
the contraband trade at the beginning of this century,
estimated at £2,000,000, the worth of the Diamonds found
in Minas Geraes would be about £11,000,000. The Dia-
monds from these mines differ from those of the Bahia
mines in shape and colour. The form of the stones is more
regular, while the colour is more uniform in its greenish
tints, and less, if at all, vitiated by any yellow reflection.

The Paraguay and its many tributaries carry down
gold and Diamonds. During the dry season, from April
to the middle of October, when the depth of the river is
much diminished, the water is drawn off into a canal, and
the mud of the river bed is dug out to a depth of six to
ten feet, and carried to a place where it can be washed by
the negroes during the wet season. In digging out the
mud, large holes are often found containing many
Diamonds and *much gold. When the wet season stops
the digging, the scene of action is the " washing huts."

1 1 2 Brazilian Diamonds.

Washing troughs (canoes) are placed side by side, and the
overseer has a raised seat, so as to be able to observe all
the negroes at work. Every trough has its little stream of
water, and a negro keeps the contents in constant motion
until the mud has been washed away and the water is
quite clear. Then the sand and fine gravel are taken in
the hand and searched for Diamonds. If one is found,
the negro stands upright and knocks as a signal for the
overseer, who takes the Diamond from him, and lays it in
a vessel filled with water, which hangs in the middle of
the shed. When the day's work is over, the contents of
this vessel are taken by the overseer, and their weight
entered in a book.

Large Diamonds are very rarely found. It has been
estimated that in ten thousand specimens rarely more than
one weighing twenty carats is met with, while possibly
eight thousand of one carat, or less, may be discovered.
At the works of the Jequetinhonha River, during a year's
labour, only two or three stones have been found varying
from seventeen to twenty carats, and at the whole of the
works in Brazil, for the space of two years, not more than
one of thirty carats was found. In 1851 a Diamond
weighing I2O§ carats was discovered at the source of the
Patrocinho River, in the province of Minas-Geraes.

Somewhat later, on the Rio-das- Velhas, the labourers
found a stone of 107 carats weight, and in Chapada one
of 87^ carats. The largest, however, which has been
discovered in Brazil is that called the " Star of the South,"
which was found in 1853, at Bogagem, in the Province of
Minas-Geraes, and weighed 254^ carats before it was cut

There are many laws and regulations in Brazil to
prevent the negroes concealing and smuggling Diamonds.
As a means of encouraging honesty, if a negro finds a large

Brazilian Diamonds. 113

stone he is crowned with a wreath of flowers, led in pro-
cession to the manager, and formerly his freedom was
bestowed upon him. If a negro finds a Diamond from
eight to ten carats weight, he receives two new shirts, a
suit of clothes, a hat, and a handsome knife. This, at
least, was formerly the case.

For unfaithfulness the negroes are beaten with sticks,
or have iron bands fastened round their throats ; and on
repetition of the fault they are not admitted to the works
again. Notwithstanding all these rewards and punish-
ments, one-third of the produce is supposed to be surrep-
titiously disposed of by the labourers. Manifold are the
tricks used by the negroes to appropriate and barter the
gems they discover. In the very presence of the overseers
they manage to conceal them in their hair, their mouths,
their ears, or between their fingers ; it has been said that
not unfrequently they will throw them away, and return for
them at the dead of night.

The discovery of these Precious Stones in 1746 proved
a great curse to the poor inhabitants on the banks of the
Diamond rivers. Scarcely had the news of the discovery
reached the Government ere they tried to secure the riches
of these rivers for the Crown. To effect this the inhabi-
tants were driven away from their homes to wild, far-away
places, and deprived of their possessions, while a dreadful
drought, succeeded by a violent earthquake, increased their
distress. The Diamonds were found in great numbers,
and under curious circumstances. After a heavy shower
the children would find Diamonds in the streets, and in the
brooks which traversed them, and would often take home
three or four carats of Diamonds. One negro found a
Diamond at the root of a vegetable in his garden. Poultry,
in picking up their food, swallowed Diamonds, so that their
viscera required searching before being disposed of.

114 Brazilian Diamonds.

When Diamonds were first discovered in Bahia, the
old capital of Brazil, which was at the time a densely-
populated and fruitful province, the observant and intelli-
gent Portuguese minister, the Marquis de Pombal, forbade
further search, as he feared that agriculture, which he
justly regarded as a source of blessing and health to the
land, would suffer.

A very strange history is connected with the discovery
of Diamonds in Bahia. An intelligent slave from Minas-
Geraes, keeping his master's flocks in that province, thought
he observed a similarity between the soil of his native place
and that of Bahia. He sought therefore in the sand, and
soon found 700 carats of Diamonds. Fleeing from his
master he carried these with him, and offered them for
sale in a distant city. Such wealth in the hands of a slave
caused him to be arrested, but he would not betray himself.
The master to whom he was given up tried to get at his
secret by cunning, but without avail, until he thought of
restoring to him his former occupation in Bahia, and
watching him. As soon as the secret was known numbers
flocked from Minas-Geraes and other parts of Brazil to
Bahia, so that the following year as many as 25,000
people were occupied in seeking Diamonds there, and
the amount daily secured for some time rose to about
1,400 or 1,500 carats.

The number of Diamond-seekers however, gradually

dwindled to between five and six thousand ; but up to the

end of the year 1849 there had been as many as 932,400

carats of Diamonds obtained from the Chapada of Bahia.

This field is about eighty miles long and forty miles broad.

The total produce from the entire Brazil Diamond

districts was calculated up to the year 1850 to exceed

10,000,000 carats. In the year 1851 the produce appeared

Brazilian Diamonds. 115

to be increasing; but in 1852 it was evidently on the
wane. The estimated value of Brazilian Diamonds from
1 86 1 to 1867, the date of the discovery of the South
African Diamonds, was about ;£i, 888,000.

Some very interesting information was given by the
German traveller, Herr von Tschudi, who visited the city
of Diamantina, in February, 1858, He observes: "The
pivot on which Diamantina turns is Diamonds. I was
present during the unexampled commercial crisis which
extended from town to town, and country to country, with
such disastrous consequences, and which fell with the
weight of an avalanche on the inhabitants of Diamantina.
All business was stopped, and Diamonds fell to one-half
the price they reached only the year before."

The panic described by Von Tschudi was severe, but
it is very doubtful whether any panic was ever equal in
extent and importance to that caused by the discovery of
the riches in South Africa, which produced a revolution in
the Diamond market.

No country was more incredulous about the prodigious
yields of the South African mines than Brazil, and this
perversity made the loss disastrous to the Brazilian
merchants, as they refused to receive the warnings which
were sent them in perfect good faith. The favour bestowed
on the Cape Diamonds, and the great margin of profit
which they yielded, resulted in the Brazilian Diamonds
being more and more neglected ; and as the difficulties were
augmented by the predilection of Amsterdam workmen
for the new stones, a depreciation followed greater than
that which the prices obtained for Cape stones justified.

The Cape yield of large stones led to the general
rejection of the small, such as were furnished by the Brazil
merchants in every parcel which they supplied to the

Ii6 Brazilian Diamonds.

market. The alternative of sending only finer specimens
to the practical exclusion of small stones, if they intended
seriously to enter into competition with Cape gems, was
a matter of anxious concern to them, not because the
Brazilian Diamonds had deteriorated in beauty or in
quality, but because the exorbitant prices at which they
had been offered for sale could no longer be maintained,
It is a well known fact that, owing to the increasing scarcity
of stones, the working of the Brazilian mines gradually
became barely remunerative; and at the present time it
hardly pays to work for Diamonds in Brazil.

CHAPTER VI.

BRITISH GUIANA DIAMONDS.

,T is known that Diamonds occur in British
Guiana, but little has hitherto been done in
systematically searching for them. From
time to time, those who are engaged in wash-
ing gold, in the placer diggings, find crystals of Diamond ;
and some of these have been described as well-formed octa-
hedral crystals, of excellent colour and quality. The gravels
of the Mazaruni River are noted specially as being dia-
mantiferous. In 1891, some prospecting parties from
Georgetown proceeded up this river, and obtained a num-
ber of small Diamonds, but this success does not seem to
have been followed up. The present state of our knowl-
edge does not justify us in predicting anything as to the
probable future of British Guiana as a Diamond-producing
colony.

CHAPTER VII.

INDIAN DIAMONDS.

LTHOUGH the Diamond fields of India have
been celebrated from remote antiquity, it is
only of late years, that our knowledge of
Indian geology has been sufficiently advanced
to enable the mineralogist to speak with even approxi-
mate accuracy as to the nature of the Diamond-bearing
rocks of that country. The materials accumulated by the
Geological Survey have been rendered accessible to the
public, by the issue of an admirable " Manual," of which
the third volume is devoted to Economic Geology — a
subject which the late Prof. V. Ball, treated with great
ability. A fourth volume, by Mr. F. R. Mallet, forms a
kind of supplement to this work. The geological conditions
under which the Diamond occurs in India are fully dealt
with in this official Manual.

The Diamonds of India are generally found in super-
ficial deposits derived from the disintegration of the solid
rocks. Where the Diamond apparently occurs in situ, it
is in certain rocks belonging to the great Vindhyan
formation, a formation which derives its name from the
Vindhyan hills of the old geographers, and which is of
very great but unknown geological antiquity. At the
Panna mines, Diamonds have been found embedded in a
conglomerate belonging to a minor division of the Upper

Indian Diamonds. 119

Vindhyans, known as the Rewar group ; but this conglom-
erate is apparently formed of materials derived from the
older or lower Vindhyan series. In Southern India the
Lower Vindhyans are represented by the Karnul group
and at the very base of this formation the Diamond is
found. Such is its position, for example, at the Banagan-
pilly mines. But here again the Diamond rock is a
conglomerate — that is to say, a detrital rock made up of
pebbles derived from some yet older rock. Associated
with these pebbles are the Diamonds ; but whence the
Diamonds came, from what rock they may have been
broken, or out of what matrix they may have been washed,
no one can say. Old workings for Diamonds have been
discovered in the Dharwar Conglomerate, of still higher
antiquity than the Banaganpilly, but whether these workings
yielded Diamonds, or not, is unknown. If Diamonds were
worked in this conglomerate their origin is thrown back to
an excessively remote period of geological time.

In 1882, M. Chaper, a French mining engineer, en-
gaged in exploration for Diamonds in Madras, announced
that he had discovered the Diamond in its veritable matrix
near Wajra Karur, not far from Bellary. According to
his reports, submitted to the French Academy of Sciences,
and to the Geological Society of Paris, the rock which he
regarded as the parent of the Diamond, was a rose-coloured
Pegmatite, but it has been shewn that his conclusions were
based on erroneous observations.

Attention was called some years ago to the occurrence
near Wajra Karur of a certain rock, closely resembling the
famous " blue earth " of the South African Diamond fields.
This ''blue" forms a "neck" in a granitoid rock, containing
epidote, and asso'ciated with hornblende gneiss ; and it
was assumed that it represented an old and altered volcanic

I2O Indian Diamonds.

material, which had brought up the Indian Diamonds in a
similar manner to that in which the Cape Diamonds have
been carried up the volcanic ducts of Kimberley. Workings
at this locality were, however, unsuccessful and resulted in
a considerable loss.

There are three extensive districts in India which have
yielded Diamonds on a large scale. Of these the most
famous is the southernmost improperly termed the Gol-
conda region, the old fort of Golconda, in Hyderabad,
being far distant It includes various mines on the Kistna
and Godaviri rivers, and other localities in the Madras
Presidency, which will be noticed in detail in the following
pages. The second great tract lies in the Central Provinces,
and includes the mines of Sumbulpur. The third is in
Bundelkhund, where are situated the Panna mines.

In addition to these principal areas, a few other
localities have yielded Diamonds. They have been found,
for example, in Bonai ; in the province of Chutia Nagpur ;
and, it is said, near Simla.

An account of the Precious Stones of India was given
in a work entitled Mani Maid, by Rajah Sourindro Mohun
Tagore, published at Calcutta, in 1879. Although some
of the descriptions given are hardly scientific, yet the book
contains much that is interesting with respect not only
to the history of Precious Stones, but also as to their
localities. The following list gives the names of the Indian
localities in which the Diamond is said to occur, with the
supposed modern equivalents of those names : —

1. Haima (Himalayas).

2. Matanga (Kistna and Godaviri or Golconda).

3. Saurashtra (Surat).

4. Paunda (probably included the Chutia Nagpur

localities).

Indian Diamonds. 121

5. Kalinga (countries between Orissa and the Goda-

viri).

6. Kosala (the modern Ajodhya or Berar).

7. Vena Ganga (the Wemganga).

8. Saubira (the tract between the Sarhund and Indus

rivers).

The most southern group of the Diamond strata
begins at the environs of Cuddapah, or Kadapah, on the
Pennar. Here for many hundred years Diamonds have
been met with in small quantities. They are found in
many places contiguous to each other : at Chennur or
Chinon ; at Cunnapurtee, opposite Chennur, probably the
same locality as that described by Heyne and Newbold as
Condapetta ; at Woblapally or Obalumpally, at Vannia-
penta, Ghunputty, Pinchetgapadu, Jummulmudgoo and
Connucaseloo ; all being villages not far from the river
Pennar.

Near Cuddapah ^475 feet above the sea) the Diamond
conglomerate is superficial, and from 10 to 20 feet thick.
The mountain rises 1,000 feet higher than this stratum,
and its foot is everywhere covered with loose pebbles.
The beds follow each other in the following order : upper-
most a foot and a half of sand, grit, and loam ; then a
tough blue or black muddy earth, without any stones,
four feet thick ; under this comes the Diamond bed,
characterized by the numerous large round stones em-
bedded in it. It is from two to two-and-a-half feet thick
and consists of pebbles and grit, bound together by loam.

At Cuddapah large blocks of hornblendic rock, mostly
derived from the neighbouring mountain chain, constitute
the chief mass of the Diamond bed.

The Obalumpally mines, also on the right bank of the

122 Indian Diamonds,

Pennar, are only a few hours' journey west of Cuddapah.
The Diamond bed here seems to follow the course of the
river, and is of varying width. Here the Diamonds always
occur in more rounded crystals. Those found still further
west are the best.

The villagers around the old Vanniapenta workings
state that at a distant period, which they vaguely describe
about a hundred years ago, some "great people" came
to the place and dug into a fissure in the blue limestone,
whence they extracted a large quantity of Diamonds.
Other pits were then dug in the neighbourhood, but none
of them proved productive.

In the Brahat Sanhita, which dates from about the
Sixth Century of the Christian era, it is said that Diamonds
were divided into four classes, according to their castes.
1st, Brahmans, clear and of " pure water/' white as the
flower of the lotus, or as crystal, 2nd, Kshatriyas, clear
and of the colour of honey, or red like the eye of the hare.
3rd, Vaysias, cream-coloured or green like the fresh plantain
leaf. 4th, Sudras, greyish- white, or like polished steel.
The Sudra is said to be worth one-fourth, the Vaysia one-
half, and the Kshatriya three-fourths of the value of
the Brahman Diamond. The Sudras are the Diamond
seekers who carry on their work without inspection, and
pride themselves on their honesty. The pits which they
dig are square excavations, not more than sixteen feet
deep.

Among the Diamond-bearing localities in the district
round Bellary may be mentioned Wajra Karur, Gunjee-
goonta, and Guti or Gutidrug.

The native village of Wajra Karur (" Diamond Town "
is situated about nine miles from Goondacal, on the Madras
Railway, in the Gooty Taluk. The Diamonds are found

Indian Diamonds. 123

in the detritus covering the low county, and probably
derived from the sandstones and breccias overlying the
gneiss of the neighbouring hills. Diamonds have been
found in the district from time immemorial, and Tippoo
Sultan, when in power claimed all large stones, whilst he
levied a royalty upon small ones. At the present time,
the villagers turn out after heavy rains, and search for
Diamonds.

In 1 88 1 a Diamond of very fine quality, though of
irregular shape, weighing in the rough 6/f carats, was
found near WajraKurar, probably a little to the north-west
of the village. This stone was purchased by Messrs. P.
Orr and Sons, of Madras, and yielded a fine brilliant called
the " Gor-do-Norr," Mr. Gordon Orr being the senior
partner, whilst the name, spelt thus, chimed well with
" Koh-i-nur."

It is said that the " Eugenie" Diamond was found by
a poor peasant at Wajra Karur. He offered the stone
to the village blacksmith, in return for repairing his plough,
but the smith thought so little of its value that he flung
the stone away. Afterwards, however, he picked it out
of a heap of rubbish, to which he had consigned it, and
sold it for 6,000 rupees to Mr. Arathoon, a merchant in
Madras, by whom it was disposed of, for a large sum, to
the Emperor Napoleon III.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1677, there is
an interesting paper presented by the Earl Marshal of
England to the Royal Society, in which it is stated that
at the commencement of the seventeenth century a
Portuguese gentleman went to Currure (Wajra Karur), and
after much cost and labour obtained a large Diamond
believed ;to have weighed about 434 carats, which he sold
at Goa. The late Prof. Ball suggested that this stone may

124 Indian Diamonds.

have been the Pitt Diamond, though the discovery goes
back nearly a century before the famous Diamond figures
in history, and is contrary to the general belief, which
refers the discovery of the Pitt to the mines at Parteal.
In like manner, Ball suggested that the great Mogul's
Diamond may have come from Wajra Karur, and this I
think likely, notwithstanding Tavernier's statement that it
was found at Kollur.

At the north end of the table-land, extending on the
west side of the Nalla-Malla hills, as far as the town of
Randial (672 feet above the level of the sea), lies another
group of mines. The Diamond beds here are only about
a foot thick, and both the over and underlying beds are
more pebbly than in the first group.

Most of the Diamonds of this district lie loose in
the debris. There is an erroneous impression among the
poor miners that the Diamonds grow in and about the
huge fragments of the crust of the earth which has been
heaved and broken up. Among the natives of the Madras
Presidency, there exists a curious belief that the rock-
crystal, which occurs in the diamantiferous ground, will
become Diamond when impregnated with electricity by the
action of lightning. Voysey found about these mines at
least a dozen parties each consisting of seven or eight
men, working in their own lot or particular heap. He
describes them as mostly of the lowest class — poor, miser-
able creatures, with little government, and with no super-
intendent to direct or regulate their labour. In the rainy
season the miners work in the Diamond pits on the heights,
and when the floods are over, in the low-lying mines by
Kistna. Most of the Indian Diamond miners belong to
the aboriginal tribes, their trade being hereditary. The
Panna mines were worked formerly by Gonds or Kols,

Indian Diamonds. 125

and though some of the miners of Southern India are said
to be Hindus, and others are simply described as low
outcasts, yet they all probably are descended from the
same Dravidian family.

The Diamond district of Banaganpilly lies five hours'
journey west of Randial, surrounded by lofty plateaus, or
flat-topped mountains, whose sides admit of cultivation.
Heyne alleges that the mines are in the mountains,
varying from one to two hundred feet in height, and that
the Diamonds are found at a depth of about twenty feet
from the surface. Voysey, who lived later than Heyne,
asserts, in rectification of this statement, that, for many
years past, it is only in the broken-up crust that the
Diamonds are found.

Dr. King, the late Director of the Geological Survey of
India, visited these mines, and described the Diamond-
layer as a clayey conglomerate containing pebbles and
fragments of shale, chert, and quartzite. This "gangue is
pounded up, mashed, sifted, and laid out to dry on prepared
floors, after which the residue of clean sand is carefully
examined in the hand by the women and children of the
working parties, for the precious gems." These gems,
however, are evidently very rare, for Dr. King could not
hear of a single stone being found during his stay of four
or five days at the mines. Many other Diamond-bearing
localities are known in the neighbourhood of Karnui, but
4n most cases the workings are now deserted.

In the valley of the Kistna, or Krishna, there are
numerous spots in which Diamonds have been worked,
especially at Kollur, which was probably the Gani Coulour
of Tavernier : and at Parteal, or Gani Parteal. In fact, the
localities in the Kistna and Godaviri valleys constitute the
famous Golconda district, and are still being worked, though

128 Indian Diamonds.

The change from a grey to a red soil, consisting of
weather-worn granitic gravel, is here distinctly seen. The
upper layer consists of the black " Cotton soil " brought
down from the higher grounds by floods. Beneath this
layer lies a mass of fragments of sandstone, quartz, jasper-
flint, and granite, with great amorphous masses of calca-
reous conglomerate, but destitute of any indication of their
having been rolled there by water. It is in this stratum
that the Diamond is found ; but none of the mines about
Mallivully or Golapally are now worked.

The locality known as Parteal or Gani-Parteal, on the
north bank of the Kistna, has been regarded by some
authorities as the original home of the historical 4< Pitt J>
or " Regent " Diamond. The Hyderabad (Deccan) Com-
pany has for some years past been washing for Diamonds
at Parteal or Partial. So important were the Diamond-
workings in this district that by the Treaty of 1766, made
between the Nizam and the East India Company, they
were reserved to His Highness. The Diamond fields of
Hyderabad have been visited and reported upon in recent
years by several experts, as by Mr. Lowinsky in 1886,
Mr. Theodore Hughes in 1887, and Mr. William Morgans
in 1889.

The Diamond district of the Sumbulpur or Sambalpar
group, in the Central Provinces, extends to the immediate
vicinity of Sumbulpur, a city built on a fruitful alluvial
table-land, 385 feet above the level of the sea, and situated
between the rivers Mahanadi and Brahmini.

The Precious Stones which are found at the mouths of
the little tributaries of the Maund, flowing from the north-
east, are of various sizes and generally of the purest quality.

Although Diamonds are rarely, if ever, now found in
Sumbulpur, it is interesting to preserve the description of
the old Diamond-washers in the days of .the Rajahs.

Indian Diamonds. 129

In Sumbulpur the Diamond seekers were of two
castes. They resembled Negroes rather than Hindoos, and
received the names of Ihara and Tora. Sixteen villages of
the poorest kind were given up to them as free Jaghirs ;
ten being occupied by the Iharas and four by the Toras,
the remaining two being dedicated to their gods.

These people were naturally superstitious. Nicolo
Conti, who travelled in India in the early part of the 1 5th
century, gives some very questionable stories as to a
Diamond-producing mountain, and the means by which
they were produced. It is also believed that sacrifices
were made upon the opening of a new Diamond mine, and
credulous travellers in those early days, might possibly
have supposed that these sacrificial rites were essential to
the successful search for Diamonds,

The Diamond seekers with their families, numbering
from 4000 to 5000 persons, migrated yearly ; and from
November to the commencement of the rainy season
searched the bed of the Mahanadi River from Chunder-
pur to Sonepur, a distance of twenty-four miles, scruti-
nizing every cleft and corner for the Precious Stones.
They carried with them only three tools : a pickaxe, a
board five feet long, hollowed in the middle and provided
with a raised border three inches high, and a second
board about half the size of the other.

With the pickaxe they scraped the earth out of the
clefts and holes, and piled it in heaps on the bank. Their
women laid the earth on the larger board, slightly inclined,
washed it with water, and removed all the rougher sand
and pebbles, which were subsequently placed on the smaller
board, spread out, and searched for precious stones and
gold dust. The Diamond was found for the most part
in a mass of tough, reddish clay, pebbles, sand, and

1 30 Indian Diamonds.

some iron oxide. This seems to be the debris of the same
stone " breccia " as that which Voysey supposed to be
Diamond-rock in the Pennar and the Kistna groups.
The washers of Sumbulpur now rarely, if ever, find
Diamonds with the alluvial gold.

Another method of obtaining the Diamond was to
form a flat surface in the neighbourhood of the place where
the precious stones were to be sought, and build round it a
wall two feet high, leaving here and there openings for the
water to run off. The earth which had been worked out
by means of the pickaxe, was thrown into this extemporized
well, and after two or three washings the large stones were
removed, the residue dried, and the Diamonds sought for.
From time immemorial the Diamonds found in this district
had been claimed by the ruler as his right. The finder of
large Diamonds was rewarded by the royal grant of one or
more small villages. For smaller Diamonds there were
other rewards ; but for the concealment of precious stones
the natives were punished by having their villages taken
from them, and were subject also to corporal punishment.
In spite of this, and threatenings of severer penalties,
smuggling and concealment continued.

Since the year 1818, Sumbulpur has been under
British rule. In that year a Diamond was found which
weighed 21 carats, and although of only the third quality
was sold for 5000 rupees.

It is necessary to distinguish Sumbulpur in the Central
Provinces from Tavernier's Soumelpour, a locality identified
by the late Prof. Ball with Semah or Semulpur, on the
River Koel, in Chutia Nagpur. Diamonds have also been
worked a little further south, at a locality on the South
River, one of the tributaries to the Brahmani.

In the Chanda district, to the south east of Nagpur,
are the old Diamond mines of Wariagarh.

Indian Diamonds. 131

The Diamond-diggings in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Panna (or Punnah) in Bundelkhund, have been
described by Mr. Medlicott, formerly Director of the
Geological Survey of India. They do not cover an area of
more than 20 acres. Great pits, 25 feet in diameter and,
perhaps, 30 feet in depth, are dug for the sake of reaching
the Diamond conglomerate, which, in many cases, is not
more than a span in thickness. The miners enter the pit
by means of inclined planes, and work almost naked and
knee-deep in water. The material which they dig up is
put into baskets and hauled by manual labour to the
surface, where it is carefully searched for Diamonds. The
most productive Diamond mines in this group were, in
1860, to be found in the village of Sukariuh, about twenty
miles from Panna Here the upper stratum, from 15 to 20
feet thick, had to be broken through in order to reach the
rich Diamond-bed which lay concealed underneath.

Four kinds of Diamonds were found at Sukariuh.
They were termed, 1st, Motichul, clear and brilliant ; 2nd,
Manik, verging in tint towards green ; 3rd, Panna, with a
faint orange tint ; 4th, Bunsput, sepia coloured.

Diamonds are found under the cascade of the river

Bagin, from 700 to 900 feet below the present Diamond

strata ; and the only explanation hitherto given is that

the Bagin has brought these precious stones down from

, the table-land, with other matter torn from its native bed.

Diamond-mining in India under European manage-
ment does not appear hitherto to have been successful.
It is erroneous, however, to suppose that there is any real
exhaustion of the localities where mining is possible. On
the contrary, geological examination has proved that the
Diamond-bearing strata are very widely distributed ; but
it is doubtful whether the same working operations are

CHAPTER IX.

UNITED STATES' DIAMONDS.

ALTHOUGH it has long been known that
Diamonds are occasionally found in the United
States, yet the quantity and the character of
the stones hitherto discovered have not been
such as to warrant any attempts at systematic working.
The Diamonds occur mostly in the auriferous sands and
gravels, and have been accidentally brought to light in
washing the detritus for its gold.

In the Eastern States, Diamonds have been found
very sparsely distributed through a belt of metamorphic
rocks, along the east of the Appalachians, stretching
through the States of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia ;
whilst in the West they occur in California, and have also
been discovered in Wisconsin, Oregon and Idaho. A
comprehensive review of the general subject has been
published by Mr. G. F. Kunz, of New York, in his work on
" The Gems and Precious Stones of the United States."

Perhaps the most noteworthy Diamond hitherto
yielded by the United States was one discovered in 1855,
at Manchester, opposite Richmond, in the State of Vir-
ginia. It was found by a labourer at work in one of
the streets, and was submitted by him to Mr. J. H. Tyler,
sen., of Richmond, who at once pronounced it to be a
valuable stone. It presented the form of an octahedron,
with only a small single black spot in one of the solid
angles, but it was off-coloured. In the rough it weighed

United States' Diamonds. 135

23! carats, and after cutting weighed upwards of iiyj
carats. This stone has been called, after some of its owners,
the "Dewey Diamond" and the "Morrissey Diamond."

The occurrence of itacolumite, or flexible sandstone,
in North Carolina, led at one time to the conclusion that
Diamonds might be found plentifully in that State, since
it was believed by many mineralogists that a similar rock
formed the matrix of the Diamond in Brazil.

One of the most prolific localities in the West has
been the Cherokee District, in Butte County, California,
where the gold miners on cleaning up the sluices occa-
sionally find Diamonds. The stones are associated, as
pointed out by the late Professor Silliman, with several
rare minerals, including platinum.

About the year 1870, large discoveries of Diamonds
were reported from Arizona, but it was eventually found
that a gigantic fraud had been perpetrated, the ground
having been liberally " salted " with rough Diamonds and
other precious stones, such as Rubies and 'Sapphires,
purchased in England for that purpose.

The interesting discovery of Diamonds in the great
masses of meteoric iron from the Canyon Diablo, in Arizona,
has been described on p. 73, in connexion with the discussion
of the probable origin of Diamonds.

CHAPTER X.

COLOURED DIAMONDS.

IAMONDS are found of almost every hue. The
following is the order in which coloured
Diamonds may be ranked, having regard to
their rarity and value: — I, Red; 2, Green;
3, Blue ; 4, Pink , 5, Mauve. There are undoubtedly
fine specimens not included in this classification, their
tints and shades being so peculiar and varied that they
may better be described individually than in groups.

RED DIAMONDS.

Almost the only specimen of Red Diamond known to
jewellers is a gem of a carat weight, bought by the author,
and sold to the late Mr. George Samuel for ;£8oo. It is
known as the " Halphen Red Diamond."

There are many Rose-coloured Diamonds, but the
Blood or Ruby Red specimen just described — a gem on
fire as it were — is believed to be unique in all modern
experience. I understand, however, that a fine Red Dia-
mond was found in Borneo, and sold, for a large sum, in
Paris, but this was not of so deep a red as the Halphen.

GREEN DIAMONDS.

The history of the finest specimen of a Diamond of
this colour may not be uninteresting. Fifty years ago
this stone was thrown out of a parcel of Emeralds in

1. TAVERNIER INDIAN ROUGH BLUE DIAMOND.

2. THE "HOPE " BLUE DIAMOND (Brilliant Cut).

2, 3, 4, Cut from French Blue Brilliant.

3. THE " BRUNSWICK" BLUE DIAMOND (Rose Cut).

4. THE " PIRIE" BLUE DIAMOND (Brilliant Cut).

Coloured Diamonds. 137

Vienna and bought for a trifle by the late Mr. George
Samuel, at that time Consul there, who sold it to the author
for ;£2OO. Some years afterwards, it was sold for £300.
Subsequently it passed into the possession of a jeweller in
Bond Street, who sold it to an American for £600, and
afterwards, it was sold for over £1,000 to a great New
York jeweller, and I understand it has since been sold,
for something like 7,000 or 8,000 dollars.

Among the treasures of the famous Griine Gewolbe,
or " Green Vaults," of Dresden, is a pale Green Diamond
weighing 48^ carats, and valued at £30,000. It is not,
however, to be compared, in respect of colour, with the
green one mentioned above, and is indeed more of the
colour of an aquamarine.

The collection of coloured Diamonds in the Vienna
Museum, which was brought together by H err Virgil von
Helmreicher, a Tryolese by birth, but long resident in
Brazil, is undoubtedly the most complete in Europe.

BLUE DIAMONDS.

Diamonds of a faint bluish tint are not unfrequently
found, but their defect is that they are usually more or
less opalescent, and therefore they formerly ranked as stones
of inferior quality, though they now realize high prices in
America.

The only Blue Diamonds known until lately were found
in the old Indian mines, probably those of Gani-Colour,
visited by Tavernier, and the first mention we have of a
Blue Diamond in Europe refers to a stone then considered
unique. It weighed in the rough 112^ carats, was bought
by Tavernier in India in 1642, and was sold to Louis XIV.
in 1668. It is described as "d'un beau violet." It would

138 Coloured Diamonds.

appear to have been somewhat flat and ill-formed. The
figure given in our plate probably represents faithfully this
stone in its condition at the time, and is a copy from an
old French engraving. After its purchase by " Le Grand
Monarque," it was apparently cut. It figured in a grand
historic scene on the ipth February, 1715, when the Persian
Ambassador appeared before Louis XIV., twelve days
after his public entry into Paris. Le Grand Monarque,
notwithstanding his great age and infirmities, exerted his
remaining energy of will to appear before the illustrious
stranger to the best advantage. He was dressed in a black
suit, ornamented with gold, and embroided with Dia-
monds stated to cost — the almost incredible estimate of
;£ 1 2,000,000. Suspended from a light blue ribbon round
his neck, he wore a dark Blue Diamond as a pendant.
And we find in the French regalia, a century later, a
facetted Diamond, triangular in shape, and of an identical
colour, weighing 67^ carats, which would be about the
weight of Tavernier's celebrated purchase, after it had
been cut.

This stone was, with the rest of the French regalia,
seized in August, 1792, and deposited in the Garde-
Meuble. From this insecure place it was surreptitiously
abstracted in September of the same year. What ulti-
mately became of it remains a mystery. That it should
have really been lost is incredible ; and from the sudden
appearance of a stone of similar character, the extra-
ordinary rarity of which is acknowledged, the belief may
be fairly entertained that the new stone was only Tavernier's
gem re-cut, and so altered in form as to render its identifi-
cation very difficult. This hypothesis receives additional
probability from the fact that a Blue Brilliant about the
year 1830, was in the hands of Mr. Daniel Eliason, which

Coloured Diamonds. 139

came to light without a history, without any account being
rendered as to whence it came, and what had been its
travels and fortunes. Subsequently it is traced as the pro-
perty of the late Mr. Hope, under the name of the " Hope"
Diamond. The difference in weight between the original
stone of 67^ carats, and this actual stone of 44^ carats,
naturally suggests the question, "Was the weight lost
simply in the cutter's hands, or were one or more pieces
removed by simple cleavage, and preserved ? " The latter
supposition, viz., that the Diamond abstracted in 1792
was reduced by cleavage and formed into three Brilliants,
is npt improbable. This deduction is indeed the more
plausible, as Tavernier's Diamond evidently had one of the
crystallographic faces largely produced on the one side,
which gave the stone a "drop form," a formation frequently
seen in rough Diamonds, especially in coloured stones
(excepting always the yellow varieties), and leading to the
inference that the cleavage plane must have lain as in
the diagram between A and B. In
the first cutting of the stone this
original shape was to some extent
preserved, which left an ill-formed,
triangular-shaped Brilliant somewhat
thin on one side. From this it would
have been easy for an expert to cleave
(See coloured piate of Blue a triangular piece of about 10 or ii
carats, thus leaving the stone weighing
about 56 carats, the re-cutting of which, as a perfect
Brilliant, well proportioned, would reduce it to its present
weight of 444 carats. It is observable that the " Hope "
Diamond is even now straighter on one side than the other,
and this strengthens the presumption of the stone having
been cleaved as suggested.

140 Coloured Diamonds.

The correctness of this hypothesis would receive
confirmation if the pieces, or the piece, assumed to be
split off could be discovered and identified, but the
difficulty in the way of this evidence lies in the strong
presumption of remanets having been also subjected to
re-cutting and re-polishing. The cleft-off piece must have
been triangular at first, with a straight side corresponding
with the side of the " Hope " Diamond, as shewn in the
diagram. After being re-cut it would make a Blue
Diamond of "drop shape," the base of which would
correspond with the straight side of the latter gem,
proportionate in substance, identical in colour (in all prob-
ability) and weighing from 6 to 7 carats.

A stone answering to such a description would supply
strong presumptive evidence in support of the theory, that
the two stones would be part of the one originally separated
by the cleaver's art ; and such a stone did actually
come into the market in April, 1874, and fell into the
hands of some competent judges, who examined it in
juxtaposition with the " Hope " Diamond, to which, in colour
and quality, it bore a remarkable resemblance. It was
purchased in Geneva at the sale of the late Duke of Bruns-
wick's jewels. The conclusion that the Duke of Brunswick's
" Blue Drop Diamond " once formed the projecting side
which appears to have characterized the original shape of
the " Hope " Brilliant was inevitable, an J I bought the
third piece in Paris for ^300 ; it weighed I carat, and was
of identically the same colour, thus quite accounting for
the Blue Diamond stolen in 1792. This will be understood
by reference to the figure on the last page. No other
Diamond of this dark Sapphire steely-blue colour has to
my knowledge ever been discovered.

Coloured Diamonds.

141

There are Diamonds of other colours, such as pink,
mauve and brown-red, which fetch high prices ; but of the
red, green and blue varieties, nothing has ever been found
to touch the three which I have mentioned above. Strangely
enough I have sold the red once, the green twice, and the
blue once ; the last having been sold to the late Emperor
of Russia, father to the Duchess of Edinburgh, though the
trustees in custody of the Diamond would not, for family
reasons, at that time deliver it.

CHAPTER XI.

BORT.

ERTAIN Diamonds are found of inferior
quality, and so imperfectly crystallized, that
they are useless as ornamental stones.
These are called " Bort," or " Boort," and are
either crushed to form Diamond dust, or are used for
engraving. By mineralogists the name Bort is restricted
to a form of Diamond, which generally presents the
appearance of small nodules or spherical masses, rough on
the outside, and destitute of cleavage, but displaying on
fracture a radiated internal structure. It is usually greyish
white, or of a dark or even black colour, and has a density
a trifle less, but a hardness decidedly higher, than that
of ordinary Diamond. Under the microscope it shows a
confusedly crystalline structure.

The best kind of Bort, the round, is now used as an
abrasive in rock-boring, and when suitable fetches even a
higher price than the cutable Diamond, the supply not
being equal to the demand. Much Bort, too, is crushed
in steel mortars and used in the form of powder. This
powder, as well as that which is the produce of the
operations of cutting and cleaving rough stones, is after
mixture with oil, employed for polishing Diamonds, Rubies,
Sapphires, and other gems.

CHAPTER XII.

CARBONADO.

HIS substance, also known as "Carbonate" or
"Carbon" was discovered in Brazil in 1845,
and occurs in small irregular masses of a dark
grey, or even black colour. Both the names,
Carbonado and Carbonate, are clearly misnomers, as
chemically, the body referred to is, like Diamond, Graphite,
and Charcoal, a form of the element Carbon. It appears
to consist of an irregular aggregate of small crystals, and
presents on fracture a granular or crypto-crystalline
structure. It is found in Brazil, mostly at Chapada, in
the province of Bahia ; and in the island of Borneo ; but
has not been found either in India or at the Cape. Car-
bonado though of slightly less density than the ordinary
Diamond, is immensely superior to it in hardness. It is,
in truth, the hardest known substance in nature, surpassing
even Bort, which, in its best varieties, is a trifle harder than
the Diamond.

Carbonado was at first introduced for the purpose of
cutting Diamonds, after the same fashion as Bort. During
the last 25 years, however, a new and most impoitant
application of this material has been made. It is now very
extensively employed for the purpose of drilling holes
in rocks, either to receive explosives for subsequent
blasting, or for prospecting, in order to discover their
underlying strata. The demand that has thus sprung up for

144 Carbonado.

Carbonado, in operations for gold-mining and other pur-
poses, has caused it to rise in price from 2s. 6d. to £8 or
even to £10 per carat.

THE DIAMOND DRILL.

If steel is used to cut rocks, a percussive and not a
rubbing or cutting motion must be given to it ; otherwise,
owing to its deficient hardness, the steel itself would be worn
away rather than the rock, as popularly exemplified in the
ordinary grindstone. Where deep borings for exploring
purposes have to be made, it becomes a difficult mechanical
problem to construct a machine, which shall satisfactorily
impart a striking motion to a heavy steel tool. Moreover,
the difficulties and chances of failure increase very rapidly
with the distance from the surface, whereas, with a
continuous rotatory motion, it is comparatively easy to bore
to any depth. Borings have been effected to a depth of
several thousand feet with the aid of carbon, not much
greater difficulty being experienced at the end than at
the commencement of the operations.

Selected pieces of carbon are firmly embedded in a
ring of steel, called a crown, of the size corresponding to
that of the perforation which it is desired to bore. This
ring is screwed to a series of long hollow tubes, which are
lengthened as the work proceeds ; these tubes or rods are
kept rotating by steam power, and their weight is so
adjusted, that a pressure of half a ton can be brought to
bear on the crown, when it is boring a 4-in. hole in native
or living rock. The crown rotates some 250 times a
minute, and water is continually pumping through the
hollow rods, passing under the cutting face of the crowj,
to keep the Diamonds cool, and to wash off and upward

Carbonado. 145

to the surface, the debris formed by the action of the
crown. Under favourable circumstances hard granite
would be readily cut at the rate of 3 in. to 4 in. per
minute.

The Diamond apparatus does its work entirely by
friction. Its action is simply an abrading one, and
effected neither by cutting nor percussion. It grinds or
crushes the rocky stratum by its adamantine density.
The difference between the relative hardness of the Car-
bonate and ordinary rock is such, that several thousand
feet might be bored with a crown properly set with good
stones, before any serious wear would take place. The
principal loss does not result from actual wear, but from
the breakage which is caused when one of the stones be-
comes loose in its setting, or from some accidental cleavage
which occurs ; the fragments, unable to escape from be-
neath the crown, invariably injure the other stones.

CHAPTER XIII.

VALUE OF ROUGH DIAMONDS.

HE valuing of rough Diamonds requires much
technical experience, and is quite a business
of itself.

Although the Diamonds of all parts of the
world possess certain characteristics in common, yet the
stones from different places have special peculiarities by
which good judges generally find themselves at once in a
position to declare the locality whence they have been
obtained, although they cannot always define the grounds
of their judgment.

In valuing rough Diamonds it is necessary to consider
the following points : firstly, the form and proportions of
the crystal, whether it can be cleaved to advantage ; and
then the loss of weight likely to be incurred in cutting, as
an irregular or broken piece obviously requires a greater
sacrifice of weight to form it into a perfect Brilliant than a
well-proportioned crystal. The best forms to choose are
the octahedron and the rhombic dodecahedron. Chips or
splints are often fashioned by the cutter with very little
loss of weight. Secondly, heed must be taken to dis-
tinguish the degrees of colour, and purity of the specimen.

It must not be forgotten, in estimating large Rough
Diamonds, especially those from the Cape, that certain
tints of colour may be brought out in the cutting, which
do not appear in the stone in its rough state ; thus, perfect
polish, and the power of reflection, characteristic of the

Value of Rough Diamonds. 147

Brilliant, intensify any tint of yellow existing in the stone.
This observation does not apply to river stones, but rather
to those from the dry diggings. In many specimens a
spot is developed after cutting, which was not visible in
the rough. This spot may appear even in the finest
Diamonds, and is especially noticeable in Indian stones.

It is impossible to quote a standard price for Rough
Diamonds since the price is subject to much fluctuation.
The remark universally applicable is that the value varies
greatly, according to the size, the shape, the colour of the
stone, and its freedom from flaws.

CAPE ROUGH DIAMONDS.

To those who are not conversant with the various
classes and details of the sub-division of Rough Diamonds,
the following classification may be of service :—

White Clear Crystals. Bright Brown.

Bright Black Cleavage. Deep Brown.

Cape White Bort.

Light Bywater. Yellows.

Large White Cleavage. Large Yellows and Large

Picked Melee. Bywaters.

Common and Ordinary Fine Quality River Stones.

Mele"e. Jagersfontein Stones.

Bultfontein Metee. Splints.

Large White Chips. Emden.

Small White Chips. Fine Fancy Stones.
Mackel or Made (flat for

roses).

SECTION III.

COLOURED PRECIOUS STONES.

CHAPTER I.

THE RUBY.

HE Ruby not only stands in the very foremost
class of coloured gems, but it occupies among
Precious Stones in general a position which is
unquestionably supreme. By the Ancients it
was regarded as the very type of all that was most precious
in the natural world ; and its value is amply attested by the
numerous allusions to it in the Old Testament, sometimes
under the name of Jasper.

The price paid for this stone by the Ancients was very
high. According to Benvenuto Cellini, in his time a perfect
Ruby of a carat weight cost 800 ecus d'or, whilst a Diamond
of like weight cost only 100. Even at the present day a
fine Ruby of 5 or 6 carats may be worth ten times the value
of an ordinary white Diamond of equal weight ; for the
former is very difficult to obtain, whilst the latter may be
readily procured.

Although it is not always easy to distinguish in
ancient writings between the description of the Ruby and

The Ruby. 149

that of other red stones, it is yet believed that the Anthrax
of the Greek Philosopher Theophrastus must have been
the mineral which we recognise as Ruby ; whilst the
Carbunculus of Pliny probably included this and other
stones of a somewhat similar character. The Anthrax
was so called in allusion to its vivid colour, suggestive
of that of a live coal, and the word Carbunculus likewise
referred to its fiery appearance. Of the various kinds of
Carbunculus known to the Ancients, the most valuable
was that termed Lychnis, in consequence of its lustre
resembling that of a lamp. It is curious to note that many
old writers seem to have believed in the self-luminosity
of the Ruby and other red stones. Thus, the quaint old
writer Sir John Maundeville, describing his travels in the
East in the fourteenth century, says with regard to the
many marvels of the Court of the Great Chan of Cathay,
" This Emperor hath in his chamber, in one of the pillars
of gold, a Ruby and a Carbuncle of half-a-foot long, which
in the night gives so much light and shining, that it is
as light as day." This statement however may be laid
to rest with the numerous other travellers' stories to be
found in the pages of the credulous old knight.

Before Mineralogy became a science, and could call to
its aid the services of Chemistry and Physics, it was by no
means surprising that various stones of red colour should
be confounded together ; thus the Spinel or Balas, and
the Garnet were often mistaken for the true Ruby.
The only stone, however, to which the term Ruby
in scientific strictness can be applied is a variety of the
mineral-species termed Corundum.

The name Corundum is derived from the Hindu word
Kurand> and it is most probable that it first became known
in Europe from the stone having ' been imported from

150 The Ruby.

India. Corundum occurs in a great variety of conditions,
some being coarse and opaque, while others are translucent
or transparent, but it is only the latter which take rank
as gem-stones, and can be used for jewellery.

All forms of Corundum are found by the chemists
to contain more than half their weight of the metal, A lumin-
ium. The oxide of this metal is called Alumina^ and it is this
substance which, in its natural state, forms the mineral
Corundum. As a silicate, Alumina forms the basis of all
clays, and a multitude of other common minerals and rocks ;
while as a sulphate it enters into the composition of Alum
— whence indeed the word " Alumina" is derived.

The coarse varieties of Corundum are more or less
impure, but the transparent crystals exhibit the Alumina
in a state of approximate purity — being uncontaminated
with any other substance, save perhaps a trace of certain
metallic oxides, on which the exquisite tints of the coloured
Corundums depend, but which are present in such minute
quantity as well-nigh to elude the vigilance of the chemist

Those Corundums which present a red or reddish
colour are the true Ruby — this stone being sometimes
described in works on mineralogy as the Oriental Ruby,
in order to distinguish it from such stones as the Spinel
and others. The main fact to be borne in mind with
respect to the distinctive character of the Ruby, from a
mineralogist's point of view, is that it is really a variety
of crystallized Alumina. It will be shewn in a subsequent
part of this work that the Sapphire has practically the
same chemical composition and the same physical char-
acters, the difference between these stones being mainly
one of colour. It is believed that the fine colour of the
Burma Ruby is due to the presence of oxide of chromium,
associated in very small proportion with the alumina.

The Ruby. 151

When Tavernier in his famous "Travels" describes
the Ruby of Pegu, he says : " All other coloured stones,
in this country are called by the name Ruby, and are only
distinguished by colour ; thus, in the language of Pegu,
the Sapphire is a Blue Ruby." With reference to this
passage, the late Prof. Ball, in his edition of the " Travels,"
remarks in a note ; " A very legitimate system . of
nomenclature, as they are all of the same chemical com-
position, viz ; alumina or corundum.''

Corundum, in all its varieties, crystallizes in the
hexagonal system, usually in double six-sided pyramids,
but often also in hexagonal prisms, and sometimes in
six-sided plates or tabular crystals. The crystalline
character of the Ruby furnishes, even in a cut stone, a
ready means of distinguishing it from Garnet or from
Spinel ; since the crystalline structure is closely correlated
with certain optical properties. The use of the instrument
called the dichroiscope renders the distinction a matter of
certainty. This instrument enables us to see whether the
gem possesses the property of dichroism — that is, of
exhibiting two distinct colours, or tints, when viewed in
different directions. Gems belonging to the Cubic system
of crystallization do not exhibit this property, while in
those belonging to any of the other systems this diversity
may often be detected, when properly examined by the
dichroiscope, be the stone ever so uniform in colour to the
unassisted eye. Since both the Spinel and the Garnet
belong to the Cubic or Tesseral system, they display no
dichroism, whereas the Ruby, which belongs to the Hex-
agonal system, is invariably dichroic. The typical Burma
Ruby when examined by the dichroiscope, exhibits one
image of crimson, while the other is an aurora-red colour.

152 The Ruby,

The colours of the Siam Ruby are different, being crimson
and brownish-red.

The crystals of Corundum, including those of Ruby and
Sapphire, are often ill-shaped and rough, and usually very
much rolled. The cleavage is accompanied by conchoidal
and uneven fracture, and by brittleness. The lustre of
Corundum is vitreous, but sometimes pearly on the basal
planes, and the crystals, when properly cut, occasionally
exhibit a bright opalescent star of six rays in the direction
of the principal axis. Such crystals form the Star Stones,
to be noticed in a subsequent chapter.

The refractive index of Corundum is I '77, and there-
fore higher than that of glass ; hence the great brilliancy of
the Corundum gem-stones, when properly cut and polished.
Sir W. Crookes has shown that the Ruby, when exposed
to electric discharge in high vacuo, phosphoresces with a
brilliant red glow.

All varieties of Corundum can be scratched by the
Diamond, but by no other mineral. The extreme hardness
of Corundum has suggested its mineralogical name of
Adamantine Spar ; and it seems likely that the Adamas
of early Greek writers was not the true Diamond, but
merely a form of Corundum.

Although Corundum is a mineral which, in its various
forms, enjoys a fairly wide geographical distribution, it is
remarkable that the fine red varieties are extremely rare
and restricted in their occurrence. The localities yielding
the Rubies of commerce are indeed practically limited to
Burma, Siam and Ceylon. Even of these localities, it is
only Burma that has acquired celebrity for the favourite
tint, the true pigeon's-blood colour, which always obtains
the highest price in the market. The Rubies of Siam are
generally too dark, and those of Ceylon too pale.

BURMA RUBY.
(Weight, 1184 Carats}.

The Ruby. 153

BURMA RUBIES.

Up to the time of the annexation of Upper Burma to
the British Empire, in 1886, no description of the Ruby
district had been written by an Englishman; and the only
accessible account of the mines was one by the Padre
Guiseppe d'Amato, an Italian Jesuit Missionary in Burma,
whose description was published in the "Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal," for 1833.

Within the last few years, however, our knowledge of
the subject has grown rapidly, and at present we are in
possession of so large a body of information respecting the
character of the country and the working of the mines that
the next chapter of this work will be devoted to these
subjects. It is therefore, unnecessary in the present place
to enter into full details.

From enquiries made on the spot in 1888 by Mr. F.
Atlay, who was for some time the author's representative
at the mines, and is now the local sub-manager for the
Burma Ruby Mines Company, Ltd., it appears that there is
a tradition to the effect that the Ruby-tract, including
Mogok, Kathe and Kyat-pyin, formerly belonged to
Momeit ; and that the Burmese at that time knew nothing
about the occurrence of Rubies. It happened in the year
1630 that a Burman came to Mogok with tamarinds for
sale ; and having obtained a red stone in exchange for
some of his fruit, presented this to the King of Ava The
king was so pleased with the Ruby that he entered into
negotiations for the tract of country which produced such
minerals ; and in the year 1637, he peacefully obtained
the Ruby district in exchange for other territory.

The Ruby mining district consists geologically of
various kinds of the foliated rocks called gneiss, associated
with certain granitic rocks, and interstratified with bands

154 The Ruby.

of crystalline and saccharoidal limestone. The structure
of the country has been described by Mr. C. Harrington
Brown, whilst the petrology of the Ruby rocks has been
carefully worked out by Prof. J. W. Judd, C.B. The
matrix, or parent rock of the Ruby seems to be the lime-
stone, which in some cases is boldly crystalline and in
others finely granular. With this limestone are associated
certain basic rocks, such as those known technically as
pyroxenites and amphibolites. It is suggested by Prof.
Judd that the limestone has probably been produced by
the metamorphism of the lime-bearing felspars in the basic
crystalline and foliated rocks. The felspar may be first
altered to scapolite; and from this rather unstable mineral,
carbonate of lime may eventually be formed ; at the same
time the aluminium silicates of the felspars, being decom-
posed by natural acids, have suffered decomposition, with
final production of alumina. This alumina, under certain
conditions of temperature and pressure — the latter being
apparently very great — has crystallized out as corundum,
which takes exceptionally the condition of Ruby The
Ruby is thus found, with other minerals, embedded in the
limestone as a matrix.

By the disintegration of the matrix, the Rubies and
Spinels have been set free ; and are now largely found, as
rolled crystals and derivative fragments, among the detrital
matter which is abundantly distributed over the valleys,
along the hill-sides, and on the floor of the limestone-
caverns. A brown or yellowish clay, known locally as
Byon, seems to be the typical Ruby-bearing earth.

In 1887, when working the mines, and before the Com-
pany was formed, the author obtained from Burma a
curious rough Ruby, weighing 49 carats, and consisting
of a flattened aggregate of ill-defined crystals. Between

The Ruby. 155

some of the component crystals there was a want of
continuity, giving rise to an aperture which looked like
an artificial perforation through the stone.

The occasional discovery of a very fine Ruby, is re-
corded in the annals of Burma mining. "Gnaga Boh,"
or The Dragon Lord, is the name given to a Ruby found
at Bawbadan, weighing in the rough 44 carats, and when
cut 20 carats. This stone, which is said to be the finest
of its size ever seen, was given by the finder to King
Tharawadis.

Another very fine stone, weighing in the rough 100
carats, was found on Pingudoung Hill soon after Thee-
baw ascended the throne, and was presented to him by
Oo-dwa-gee, at that time Woon of the Ruby Mining
district. As several "royal rubies" have at various times
been found on this hill, the Company established work-
ings there, which gave at first much promise of success,
but afterwards turned out very disappointing.

The two most important Rubies ever known in Europe,
were brought to this country during the year 1875. One
was a rich coloured stone, cushion-shaped, weighing 37
carats ; the other, a blunt, drop shape, of 47 carats.

It was deemed advisable to have these stones re-cut ;
and the work was entrusted to the late Mr. J. N. Forster,
of London, who re-cut the stone of 37 carats to 32T5¥, and
the one of 47 carats to 38T9g. They were much improved
thereby, and competent judges pronounced them the
finest stones of their size yet seen, the colour being truly
magnificent. The smaller stone of the two was sold
abroad for £10,000; the larger one found a purchaser on
the Continent for £20,000. The fact of two such fine
gems appearing contemporaneously is unparalleled in the
history of Precious Stones in Europe. It is questionable,

156 The Ruby.

however, if the London market would ever have seen these
truly royal gems but for the necessities of the late Burmese
Government. In Burma the sale of these two Rubies
caused intense excitement, a military guard being con-
sidered necessary to escort the persons conveying the
package to the vessel. Two such Rubies are not to be
found in any European regalia.

There are, however, some very celebrated and historical
Rubies still on record. For example one of the size of
a pigeon's egg in the Russian Regalia was presented to the
Empress Catherine by Gustavus III. of Sweden, when on
a visit to St. Petersburg, in 1777. Chardin speaks with
admiration of a Ruby cut en cabochon^ of great beauty, and
of the size and form of half an egg, having the name of
" Thelk Lephy " engraved on the end.

It is known that the great historical gem in the
Imperial State Crown in the Tower of London, known as
" The Black Prince Ruby," is not a Ruby, but a magnifi-
cent Spinel. It is cut en cabochon^ and has a hole drilled
through it, now filled up by a plug of similar stone. This
gem was presented to the Black Prince by Don Pedro, the
cruel King of Castile, and was worn in the helmet of King
Henry V. at the battle of Agincourt.

The finds of really remarkable Rubies in Burma have
not been numerous in the past few years, either by the
Company, or by native licensees. The Company have of
course, found many valuable and fine stones, but only one
of truly surpassing excellence ; this was a Ruby found in
the Tagoungnandaing mine in January, 1895, and weighed
in the rough 1 8^ carats; the few Burmans to whom it
was shown said it was the finest stone they had ever seen,
and the experts in London were equally delighted with it

In the summer of 1895, a Ruby weighing 973 carats
was found by a Burman miner in the Ingouk valley close

The Ruby. 157

to Mogok, the actual spot where it turned up being only
S to 9 yards away from the authors original mine. This
stone is not at all pure, parts of it being thick and cloudy,
but at the same time a good deal of it is undoubtedly of
fine quality ; lying on the table in the bright sun, it has a
wonderful glow ; no idea of its value can by given, for it is
impossible to say who would buy it, but it is a most
wonderful stone, and its lucky owner dreams of untold
wealth. Though not quite as large as the 1183 carat
Ruby, of which an illustration is here given, it is of infinitely
superior quality.

Calcutta is the great market for Rubies of second class
and lower quality, but the fine stones almost without
exception are sent direct to London. For further information
regarding the Burma Rubies the reader is referred to the
next chapter of this Section, which deals specifically with
the Ruby mines of Burma.

SIAM RUBIES.

It has been known for many years that Rubies occur
in Siam, but it is only in recent years that they have been
systematically worked. Mr. John Crawfurd in his well-
known account of the Embassy to the Court of Siam, in
1828, states that Rubies are found in the hills at Chanta-
boon, and that the working of the stones is a Royal
Monopoly, rigidly guarded ; but he adds that the Siam
Rubies are "much inferior in quality to the Ava Stones."

Mr. H. Maxwell Stuart, a gentleman of high authority
on Precious Stones, who went to Siam to obtain the
concession of certain mines, enquired with much care into
the conditions under which the Rubies and Sapphires occur.
He admits that the greater number of the Rubies in Siam

158 The Ruby

are of dark colour, but considers that " many individual
stones may be said to rival the best Burma Rubies." In this
opinion, the author, after much experience in dealing with
Rubies, both from Burma and Siam, fully concurs.

The Ruby mines of Siam are chiefly situated in the
Provinces of Chantaboon and Krat, and can be reached
by steamer from Bangkok in less than twenty hours.
Rubies are also found in the Sapphire mines of Battambong.
It appears that the higher parts of the mountains in these
districts consist of greyish granite, and that the rest of
the country is largely composed of limestone. The precious
stones occur in detrital matter, and have been worked
in a primitive manner by means of pits, none of which
exceed 24 feet in depth. The workings in the Province of
Krat have been visited and reported on by Mr. Dimetri,
from whose report some of the following details are taken :

The Ruby mines in that province consist of a large
number of workings in two principal groups, about 30
miles from each other, known as the mines of Bo
Navong and Bo Channa. The Bo Navong mines, cover-
ing an area of about 2 square miles, include thousands
of holes, two to four feet in depth, near the village of Ban
Navong. A coarse yellow or brown sand, forming the
surface of the country, rests on a bed of clay, and at the
junction is the Ruby-bearing gravel, forming a stratum from
six to ten inches thick. The Bo Navong mines have been
worked for the last five-and-twenty years, and the Rubies
which they have yielded are of a finer quality, though usually
smaller, than those of the other workings. The group of
Bo Channa mines is situated about thirty miles in a north-
easterly direction from Bo Navong.

An excellent description of the Ruby-mines has
recently been published by Mr. H. Warington Smyth, who

The Ruby. 159

was for some years Director of the Department of Mines
in Siam. He considers that the Rubies have probably
been derived from the disintegration of certain basaltic
rocks, which formed their matrix. The principal Ruby-
workings are now at Bo Wen and Taphan Hin, in
Chantaboon ; and at Bo Yan, Navong and Klong Kwang,
in Krat. Rubies are also worked at Ho Klong, Klong Yai
and elsewhere, on the east side of the Kao Patat.

Prof. H. Louis has also described the Ruby deposits
of Moung Klung, between Chantaboon and Krat. He
considers that the gem stones have been derived from
the decomposition of the trap rocks, which occur so largely
in the district.

The Sapphires, which are of far more importance in
Siam than the Rubies, will be fully described in a sub-
sequent chapter.

CEYLON RUBIES.

From time immemorial the island of Ceylon, or
" Taprobane " as it was termed by the classical writers of
antiquity, has been famous for precious stones. These are
found in the form of rolled crystals and rounded fragments
in detrital deposits in the valleys, spread over the lowlands,
and in the sands of rivers. Shallow pits are dug by the
natives in these deposits, and the gem stones separated
from the associated earth by simply washing. The principal
localities for the stones are in the neighbourhood of Ratna-
pura, or the " City of Gems," and Rakwena. The gem-
stones include various kinds of coloured Corundum, but
Sapphires are much more common than Rubies. Moreover,
the Ceylon Rubies are usually of pale colour, being rose-
coloured rather than decidedly red, are of only small value,
and are, in fact generally spoken of as fancy coloured
Sapphires.

160 The Ruby.

RUBIES FROM OTHER LOCALITIES.

Although Burma, Siam and Ceylon are the only
countries, which have hitherto yielded Rubies in quantity
of any commercial importance, it must be remembered that
red or reddish Corundum has been found in many other
localities, and it seems likely that the Ruby enjoys a wider
geographical distribution than is generally admitted.

At Jagdalak, 32 miles east of Kabul, Rubies were
systematically worked by the Amir of Afghanistan. In
1879 tne mines were visited by Major G. Stewart; and
from specimens supplied by him, it appears, according to
Mr. F. R. Mallet, that the Ruby occurs there in a white
crystalline micaceous limestone.

Major Moriarty, on his return from Cabul, brought to
this country a Ruby, weighing io£ carats, from the mines
of Gandamak, in Afghanistan, which are situated about
30 degs. N. lat, and 70 degs. E. long.

From Thibet the author on one occasion received a
large piece of rough Ruby, weighing 2000 carats, forming
a flattish slab, measuring on one face 3 inches by 2\ inches.
It was, however, opaque and silky, and when cut yielded
only Star Stones. Rubies have also been found in the
Mysore district, and some cut by the author's directions
have turned out bright stones, but of small size, and of no
value ; the principal part being only Corundum.

Rubies of small size and of very little value have
occasionally been found in some of the tin and gold-bearing
gravels of Australia. In New South Wales they are
recorded from the Cudgegong and some of its tributaries,
and from Mudgee and a few other localities. In Victoria
the Ruby occurs in the drifts of the Beechworth gold-fields,
at Pakenham, and elsewhere. A magenta-coloured Cor-
undum, more or less opaque, is known in Victoria under

The Ruby. 161

the name of Barklyite. On the whole, the red Corundum
is far rarer in Australia than the blue Corundum ; and the
same rule holds good in many other localities, the Ruby
being rarer and therefore more prized than the Sa'pphire.

The so-called " Rubies " from the Macdonnell Ranges
in the Northern Territory of South Australia, the discovery
of -which created great excitement a few years ago, are
nothing but Garnets.

Among the precious stones of the United States of
America, coloured Corundums are included. A remarkable
deposit of Corundum, associated with Ruby and Sapphire,
was described by Col. C. W. Jenks, before the Geological
Society of London in 1874. The locality is known as the
Lucas Corundum Mine, and is situated in Macon County,
North Carolina. The Corundum, associated with numerous
other minerals, occurs in veins, running through a mass of
serpentine, which, rising as a boss through the surrounding
granite, is known as Corundum Hill. Some of the crystals
yielded by these veins weighed more than 300 Ibs.each, and
many of them exhibited a curious diversity of colour, so that
one part of a crystal might be red, while another portion of
the same mass would present blue and green colours. The
brightly coloured portions were veritable gems, but mostly
too much flawed and otherwise too imperfect to be of value as
ornamental stones. The discovery was one of considerable
mineralogical interest, but of no importance in connection
with the production of precious stones for jewellery.

ORIENTAL RUBY.

Composition ... ... ... Alumina.

Specific Gravity ... ... 4.

Hardness 9, or slightly under.

System of Crystallization ... Hexagonal.
Form... ... ... ... Six-sided prisms and

pyramids, variously modified,

but usually as rolled fragments. M

CHAPTER II.

THE RUBY MINES OF BURMA.

LL attempts to lift the veil of mystery which
had enshrouded the famous Ruby Mines of
Burma, since the time when they were first
brought to the knowledge of Europeans in the
fifteenth century, had been utterly fruitless until after our
formal annexation of Upper Burma, in the beginning of
1886. Up to that time we were profoundly ignorant of the
conditions under which the gem-stones occurred in this
inaccessible country ; the mines having been jealously
guarded from Europeans, and rarely if ever, visited by
anyone possessing a competent knowledge of mineralogy.
Soon after the annexation of Upper Burma, the author
of this work, under circumstances which will be fully
explained subsequently, applied to the Indian Government
for a concession of mining rights in the newly acquired
territory. During the negotiations, his son, Mr. George
Skelton Streeter, Mr. C. Bill, and Mr. Beech, were
permitted to accompany the first military expedition to
the Ruby mines. In Murray's Magazine for May, 1887,
an article was published on the subject, which had peculiar
interest, since it was written at the mines, and was the first
description which had ever appeared from the pen of any
European expert in gems, personally acquainted with the
stones and with the district.

Much of the following description of the mines, is
from the pen of Mr. W. S. Lockhart, C.E., who resided at

The Ruby Mines of Burma. 163

the mines for nearly two years as Engineer-in-Chief to the
Burma Mining Company, Ltd., and thus obtained a very
intimate knowledge of the native methods of working.

The Ruby-mines District of Upper Burma is a
large political division, bordering on the left or eastern
bank of the Irrawaddy, but the " Stone-tract " proper, in
which mining for Rubies is carried on as a recognized
industry > extends over an area of about 400 square miles,
having as its trade-centre the native town of Mogok with
the neighbouring townships of Kyat-pyin and Kathe.
The " Stone-tract " is mountainous throughout, but between
it and the Irrawaddy there is a stretch of low jungle
country, or terai, some 30 miles wide, in the flat portion of
which, although not included in the " Stone-tract," some
mining on a small scale is carried on by the natives.

Mogok itself lies about 100 miles north of Mandalay
and 6 1 miles by road, east of the Irrawaddy. It is sit-
uated in the more easterly portion of the " Stone-tract,''
but it is the chief centre of the mining-industry.

The country may be described as a dense mass of
forest-jungle, rising range after range above the terai,
and broken only here and there by alluvial patches at
the bottom of the valleys, cultivated for rice. The ele-
vation of Mogok itself is nearly 400 feet above sea
level, and the mountain-peaks about it run up to nearly
double this.

The Mines may be divided into three classes : —
The Twin-lone or pit, Hmyaw-dwin or hillside working
and the Loo-dwin, the cavern or cave-mine. The first
system is practised in the valley-bottom in the dry
weather. The bottoms are perfectly flat, and below an upper
stratum of alluvial soil, at a depth varying from 15 to 20
feet, is found the bed of " bydn" or Ruby-bearing earth.

1 64 The Ruby Mines of Burma.

Its thickness is generally 4 or 5 feet, though at times it
thins out to only a few inches, and it is almost invariably
wet and soft. The miner commences operations by driving
piles down into the underlying soft earth to form the
sides of his pit or " twin." The " twins " are either " 9 hole "
or "4 hole " twins, according to their size and the con-
sequent number of cross-struts required to support the
sides. The piles having been driven as far as possible,
the earth inside is dug out and the piles themselves caulked
with grass and leaves to keep out water. The struts are
put in every 3 feet, and work is carried on between them,
a second set of piles being driven as required inside the
first, and the work descending in this manner until the
byon has been extracted and the " A khan " or substratum
unmistakably reached.

For hoisting, the Burman uses the old fashioned balance-
crane, known all the world over, but constructs it cleverly
out of bamboos, and it certainly answers its purpose most
admirably. With these cranes water is baled out in stiff
close-meshed baskets about 10 ins. square, and the byon
in little round pliable ones some 6 or 8 inches in diameter.
Having extracted the byon in this way, it is piled in a
heap and, on a convenient day, is either washed on the
spot or carried to a neighbouring stream, according to the
supply of water available. The apparatus for washing
consists merely of a wooden trough about 5 feet long and
large enough for a man to stand in. This is set in the
ground and a stream of water led through it. The lower
end is roughly closed with a few large stones to retard the
overflow, and the byon is then fed in and kept alive by
being constantly thrown to the head of the trough by a
man with a broad tool like a hoe. In this way the water
and light stuff are carried away and the washed sand is

The Ruby Mines of Burma. 165

taken out from time to time and re-washed in flat fine-
meshed baskets.

In some parts and notably in the Kyat-pyin district
where the soil is rather stiffer and will stand better, small
circular shafts of 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet diameter, in fact
just large enough for a man to work in, are sunk to a depth
of 20 to 25 feet to the bed of byon. These shafts are
sunk very near together, and the miners drive tunnels from
one to another and take out as much of the gem-bearing
clay as they dare, but they never resort to either timbering
or filling.

With the advent of the wet-season, work in the twin-
lones must cease, and that in the " Hmyaw-dwins " or
" Hmyaws " commences. The Hmyaws are not mines in
the usual sense of the term, but rather cuttings in the
hill-sides and vary from the workings of the most insignifi-
:ant character to vast chasms, though they are all worked
on the same principle. A site having been chosen where
a bed of byon is believed to exist and where a stream
of water can be brought in at the head of the workings,
a cut is made and the top soil, generally a marly clay,
removed by washing it down with the stream, the stones,
of which there are usually a great number, being thrown
aside and used as required for building dry retaining walls.
The byon in the Hmyaws is generally of a yellowish-brown
colour, and very close and stiff, so that it will not only stand
vertically, but can be undercut and tunnelled into. The
thickness of the stratum is often considerable, as much as
1 5 or 20 feet, and it is practically a bed of very stiff clay,
filled with sand and boulders of rock. It contains
also lumps of quartz, grains of felspar, nodules of oxidised
iron -pyrites, flakes of mica and graphite, rubies, sapphires,
spinels, pieces of tourmaline and other minerals of more or

1 66 The Ruby Mines of Burma.

less value. This bed having been found, a space is cleared,
and the water supply so arranged by the clever use of
bamboos, that it falls in a spray from a considerable height
on to the cleared space or washing floor which is occasion-
ally paved, but not usually. On to this floor and under
the falling spray, the stiff byon is thrown as it is cut and
finds its way down into the tail-water, by which the clay
and a good deal of the lighter minerals are carried away
and the washed sand deposited, the process being expedited
and assisted by men with hoes stationed at intervals along
the channel. At convenient spots deeper pools are formed
out of which the sand is lifted in the flat baskets already
referred to, washed at the surface of the water, and handed
up to a picker who is usually the head-miner or his wife.
The rejected sand is thrown in heaps, and it is the privilege
of the women and girls of the village to pick these heaps
over, and to wash for what they can find in the tail-water
after it has left the mine proper.

The third class of mines, the Loodwins or Loos,
are cave workings, and are exceedingly interesting, and
generally very profitable to the miners. Almost all the
mountain-ranges have a base of limestone, covered with
the red marly clay or vegetable soil. In the outcrops of
the limestone, the entrances to the caves are generally
found. The ramifications of these caves are endless,
extending in some instances for miles, and whereas at
some points they are so contracted that it is only with the
utmost difficulty a miner can work his way through, inch
by inch, lying at full-length and drawing a small basket of
byon, tied to one toe behind him, at others they open out
iflto immense vaulted chambers, in which the effect of the
light falling on the brilliant white walls and glistening
over-arching roof is very striking.

The Ruby Mines of Burma. 167

As may be supposed work in these caverns is attended
with considerable danger, and it is only attempted by men
thoroughly accustomed to it. Frequently the loo takes the
form of a vertical shaft, perhaps a couple of hundred feet deep ;
sometimes it is a deep underground chasm, at the bottom
of which subterranean waters may be heard dashing and
boiling in the darkness. The air, too, is at times so foul as
to make it impossible either to work or to keep lights burn-
ing, while on the other hand even in the deepest places it is
sometimes fresh and clear, often with a current strong
enough to blow a light out. The byon is of a far more
sandy nature than in either the twins or hmyaws, and
though there are generally fewer stones, they are better as
to size and quality.

When the Burma Ruby Mines, Ltd., started work in
1889, great results were expected from the application
of European skill and capital to an ancient industry, which
had been conducted previously in only a primitive fashion.
These expectations were not, however, immediately real-
ized. Several plans of working were tried, one after
another, but were not successful. Eventually a really effi-
cient— though extremely simple — plan of working the
alluvial deposit in the valley was introduced. Powerful
pumps remove the water from the pits, and the top-soil
having been discarded, the stratum of Ruby-earth, or byon,
is run away in trucks to rotary pans and a pulsator, as
in the Diamond mines of Kimberley. This plan was
first practised in a small valley near Kyat-pyin, called
Tagoungnandaig.

In addition to the Company's own operations, the
Ruby " Stone-tract " is very largely mined by the original
inhabitants, who pay a royalty to the Company. These
miners seem to prosper, and it is satisfactory to note that

l68 The Ruby Mines of Burma.

the relations between them and the Company's officers are
of the most friendly character. Since the Company com-
menced working, the towns of Mogok and the villages of
Kathe and Kyat-pyin, have increased and prospered in a
most remarkable manner.

Two or three years ago there was a discovery of Ruby-
bearing ground near Mogoung, the old penal settlement
in the north of Burma, now reached by a railway. The
centre of the new workings is the village of Nanyaseik,
54 miles from Mogoung. In April, 1896, there were about
1000 men at work in the new " Stone-tract," digging on
the Twinlone and Loodwin systems, in the midst of a dense
jungle. The conditions under which the Rubies occur are
described by Dr. Warth as similar to those of Mogok ; but
the stones are said to be mostly flat, and to exhibit a
peculiar frosted appearance. Rubies have also been re-
ported from other localities near Mogoung.

In addition to the workings near Mogok and
Mogoung, there are also Ruby mines — which have long
been worked on a small scale — at Sagyin, about 15 miles
to the north of Mandalay, where a beautiful white marble
is also found and worked especially for sacred images.

CHAPTER III.

THE AUTHOR'S CONNECTION WITH THE RUBY MINES

OF BURMA.

|S my connection with the Ruby Mines of
Upper Burma has been a subject of public
curiosity, and not unfrequently of groundless
speculation, I may take this opportunity to
offer a brief sketch, shewing the origin and nature of my
relations with these mines.

Most persons interested in precious stones have been
fascinated by the glamour of the Oriental Ruby. Many
years ago, during King Theebaw's reign, my eldest son,
the late Harry Edwin Streeter, who lost his life while
pearling with my fleet in the Western Australian waters,
(an industry now carried on by my son G. Skelton Streeter),
expressed a strong desire to visit the Burmese Ruby Mines.
Knowing, however, how jealously these mines were guarded
from all Europeans, I would not for a moment countenance
so hazardous an expedition. But when Upper Burma
some years afterwards became part of the British Empire,
the case was entirely altered, and I felt that the time had
come when the resources of the country — including the
mysterious mines which for ages had practically supplied
the world with Rubies — would be thrown open to commer-
cial enterprise.

170 The Ruby Mines of Burma.

Whilst in Paris one morning in December, 1885, 1 was
taking breakfast in the saloon of the Grand Hotel, when
two gentlemen sitting at the same table happened to be
talking about the Ruby mines of Burma. They referred
to a lease, which was to have been granted by King
Theebaw to certain Frenchmen, conceding the right of
working the mines, but which, in consequence of the British
occupation of the country, had never been signed. Natur-
ally feeling deep interest in such a subject, I joined in the
conversation, with the result that I was afterwards intro-
duced to the parties in treaty for the concession. It
appeared that Messrs. Bouveillein <£ Co. had petitioned
the king to grant them the sole right of mining for Rubies,
in consideration of an annual payment of three lakhs of
rupees. They further agreed to pay four years' rent in
advance, and to make a present of one lakh to the king.
The Burmese Ambassadors in Paris had granted a pro-
visional concession, and this I ultimately obtained, together
with all the documents relating thereto, but being of no
value they were returned to Paris.

On my return to England, I immediately placed
myself in communication with the India Office, with the
view of obtaining a concession of the Ruby mines in
Upper Burma. On December 24, 1 was officially informed
by Lord Harris that it was for the Government of India to
decide upon my application ; and it was suggested, in the
same letter, that I should communicate directly with the
Secretary of the Foreign Department at Calcutta. After
some further correspondence, it was agreed that I should
send an accredited agent to the Indian Government with
the view of personally effecting the negociations.

Associating myself with three friends, we formed a

The Ruby Mines of Burma. 1 7 1

syndicate to carry out our enterprise, and engaged the
services of Captain Aubrey Patton (now Major Patton-
Bethune) as our representative. In January, 1886, Captain
Patton started for India on our behalf, furnished with a letter
of introduction from Lord Harris to Lord Dufferin, who was
then Viceroy. On arriving at Rangoon, our agent found
that Messrs. Gillanders, Arbuthnot & Co., of Calcutta and
Rangoon, in conjunction with an eminent jewel broker of
London, had already made an offer to the Government for
a lease of the Ruby mines at the annual rent of two lakhs
of rupees. This offer the Government was disposed to
accept ; but our representative, who had full discretionary
powers, made an offer of three lakhs, whereupon the
Viceroy telegraphed home for enquiry as to the bond fides
of my syndicate. The India Office sent in reply a favour-
able telegram ; but notwithstanding this assurance, the
Indian Government, after some further negotiations, de-
cided to invite public tenders.

Having reason to believe that several competitors
might appear, we deemed it expedient to increase our
offer, and finally our tender was made for four lakhs of
rupees. On April 15, 1886, a telegram from the Foreign
Secretary in India informed our representative that his
tender, on our behalf, had been conditionally accepted by
the Governor in Council.

It was decided, in July, 1886, to despatch a
military expedition to the mines, and the Government
of India wrote to our agent, suggesting that a re-
presentative of the syndicate should accompany the
force. Accordingly, my son, Mr. George Skelton Streeter,
with Colonel Charles Bill, M.P., and Mr. Reginald Beech,
the three members of my syndicate, started at once.

174 The Ruby Mines of Burma.

of the agreement by the Secretary of State for India
he obtained the Chief Commissioner's sanction to hold an
ordinary mining license. He likewise obtained the mo-
nopoly of purchasing stones in the Ruby tract on payment
of an ad valorem duty of 30 per cent, to the Indian
Government. Shortly afterwards he returned to Manda-
lay, en route to England, leaving Mr. Atlay at Mogok
to carry on mining work at the mines and to purchase
Rubies on behalf of our syndicate. Mr. Atlay, thus left to
himself, soon found that he was exposed to much treachery
and that he was powerless to prevent smuggling by the
miners.

Meanwhile difficulties had arisen at home as to granting
the concession. Notwithstanding the large sum of money
which we had expended, since we had been the accepted
concessionaires of the Government of India, the Secretary
of State in Council declined to ratify the provisional agree-
ment, until he had obtained definite information as to
the value of the mines and as to the protection of native
rights. With the view of ascertaining the value, it was de-
cided to send from England a Mining Geologist to report
upon the mines and their probable yield. Accordingly
Mr. C. Barrington Brown was commissioned to proceed,
to Burma, and he reached the Ruby mines on January
10, 1888.

Those who were acquainted with the working of the
machinery behind the scenes were not altogether without
an explanation of the remarkable change of attitude
towards our Syndicate. An enterprise of so romantic a
nature as the exploration of the famous Ruby mines of
Burma could not fail to attract much public attention ; and
both in Parliament and in the Press, at home and in India,

The Ruby Mines of Burma. 175

frequent reference was made to our operations. After Mr.
Durand, the Foreign Secretary of the India Government,
had informed Captain Patton, on April 15, 1887, that the
Governor in Council had conditionally accepted our tender,
we were led to conclude, not unnaturally, that the negoti-
ations were practically settled in our favour ; and most
people regarded us as undoubtedly the accepted concession-
aires. But it was not long before the jealousy of dis-
appointed competitors began to find public expression.
Certain members of the House of Commons were prompted
by them to ask questions framed in such a way as to
prejudice our interests. Nor were political influences want-
ing in the opposition to our concession. Great injustice
was also done to me, and still more to the Indian officials,
by the unfounded criticisms and unfair suggestions of a
portion of the London press. From time to time telegrams
from Rangoon, extremely prejudicial to our interests, sent
over by the Times correspondent, appeared in that paper ;
but it was not without significance that the Rangoon
correspondent of The Times was the legal adviser of Messrs.
Gillanders, Arbuthnot and Company, one of our rivals for
the concession. If any undue influence was at work during
the negotiations, as insinuated by the Press, it uas most
assuredly not on our side, and the idea, as suggested in
certain papers, of our bribing some of the Indian officials
was absolutely unfounded. I can say that in not one instance
did I give or offer a bribe during the whole time, extending
nearly over three years, while the Government of India and
Parliament at home, were slowly coming to a decision.

Considerable trouble was occasioned during the nego-
tiations by the action of a certain Mr. Moritz linger, who
ultimately represented himself as acting for Messrs. Roth-
schild, and whose supposed grievances as an applicant

176 The Ruby Mines of Burma.

for the concession were laid before the House of Com-
mons. He made no application until March, 1886, and
then "presented himself to the Chief Commissioner of
Burma as the agent of a Syndicate in Paris, and as the
mouthpiece of certain unnamed European capitalists."
These words are quoted from a telegram from the Viceroy
to Lord Cross, dated June 5, 1887, and this same telegram,
referring to the conditional agreement with our Syndicate,
concluded with the noteworthy expression : " We see no just
grounds for cancelling this agreement" But strangely
enough, Lord Cross, the Secretary of State, thereupon
telegraphed to the Viceroy : " Make no arrangement with
anyone without sanction from home." It is difficult
to reconcile such instructions from Lord Cross with the
statement in Lord Harris's letter to me that the con-
cession was " a matter for the Government of India
to decide!"

It was naturally with much surprise and disappoint-
ment that we found the India Office suddenly adopting
a new policy, and practically cancelling the action of the
Viceroy, Lord Dufferin. The fact seemed to be ignored
that we had obtained the conditional concession simply
because we had made the highest tender. The suspicion
of a "job" having been perpetrated was utterly groundless.
After our tender had been accepted in India, we had
incurred extremely heavy financial responsibilities, whilst
our representatives, who had gone as pioneers to the
mines, went under conditions of great difficulty and
danger, to the injury of their health, and at the imminent
peril of their lives. Yet all our claims, legal and moral,
were suddenly ignored by the Government at home !

It is pleasing to record that on the official publi-
cation of the correspondence in the " Blue Books," public

The Ruby Mines of Burma. 177

opinion veered round in our favour, and The Times
of August 1 7th, 1887, and most other papers, published
articles upon the unfair treatment which we had received
from the English Government, whilst speeches favourable
to our interests were delivered in the House of Commons.
The lease from the Government was signed on
February 22, 1889; and shortly afterwards "The Burma
Ruby Mines, Limited," — a Company to which the lease
had, by permission, been assigned, — was brought out by
Messrs. N. M. Rothschild and Sons. For an account of
the issue, the reader may be referred to The Times, of 27
February, 1889.

With the formation of this Company, the manage-
ment of affairs passed out of my hands, and my direct
connection with the Ruby Mines of Burma ceased. I am
consequently in no way responsible for the disappointing
results which have hitherto attended the Company's
operations. At the same time I do not hesitate to
reiterate my belief that the Burma Ruby Mines, if skil-
fully directed and well managed, will yet be a highly
remunerative enterprise. But in order to secure success
it is of first importance that the management should be
in the hands of those who have had experience in the
special manipulation and cutting of gem-stones. Not only
should the Company prosecute its own mining operations
with vigour, but it should have at the mines and also in
Mandalay, experts empowered to purchase rough stones
from the native miners and dealers; and I feel assured that
if these were purchased with discretion, and judiciously cut
in this country, a new and important source of profit
would be opened up, sufficient to place the Company at
once on a firm dividend-paying basis.

The Ruby Mines of Burma.

The more important figures of the last five years
working, which are given below, will show the position and
progress of the Company.

Loads
washed.

Gross cost per
load (exclusive
of rent).

Expenditure
(exclusive
of rent).

Rent paid to
Government.

Royalties
received from
Natives.

Balance on
Ruby Trading
Account.

s. d.

1893-4

20,089

29 2f

29,359

12,708

20,585

4,535

1894-5

6l,o8o

8 10

26,986

11,276

2i,395

16,744

1895-6

148,740

3 9t

28,390

11,250

28,277

27,204

1896-7

366,739

3 *

*56,7i8

18,437

22,534

43,529

1897-8

823,703

I 2f

50,576

20,815

9,976

52,146

* Includes £23,824 depreciation of Machinery, &c.

It is satisfactory to note that, with improved methods
of working, a large increase in the yield of Rubies has
recently been obtained. Moreover, several improvements
are in course of development, notably the importation of
electrical machinery, which will tend to render the working
more efficient and economical. Thus, the water of the
Mogok river is to be utilized for providing electrical power
to pump the mines, and also to work generally all the
machinery ; and it has been said that, after all, pumping
is the real crux of Ruby mining.

The difficult nature of the country may be imagined
when it is stated that it took seventeen days for the
electrical plant to traverse seventeen miles.

CHAPTER IV.

THE SAPPHIRE.

EAUTIFUL as this gem unquestionably is,
it probably derives no little enhancement of
interest from the exalted character of the
comparison with which it is associated in
the Sacred Volume. The Prophet of the great captivity
compares " the appearance of the likeness of a throne " in
the firmament above the cherubim to a " Sapphire Stone ;"
and generally it may be affirmed that around no Precious
Stone can be grouped more imposing allegories and
properties than have been associated with the Sapphire.

Up to quite modern times the Sapphire was regarded
as a charm or a medicine, and very extraordinary powers
were attributed to it It was dedicated by the Greeks to
Apollo, because, when consulting his oracle, they thought
that the possession of this gem, from its heavenly nature,
would secure them an early and favourable answer.

Among ancient writers, Solinus refers to several
characteristics of our Sapphire, especially its blue colour
and its extreme hardness. The Sapphire is, in fact, only a
variety of Corundum, or crystallized alumina ; and much,
therefore, that was said under the head of Ruby, will apply
to the Sapphire.

The characteristic colour of the Sapphire is a clear
blue, like that of the " corn-flower," and the more velvety its
appearance, the greater its value. Some Sapphires retain
their colour by gas light, while others become dark, and

i8o The Sapphire.

some assume a reddish or purple colour, and occasionally
have the hue of the Amethyst ; the latter being very rare
are very valuable, and are known as (t Oriental Amethyst/'

While the typical colour of Sapphire is blue, it should
be explained that the term Sapphire is extended by miner-
alogists and jewellers to Corundums of other colours.
Thus, we may have green Sapphires, a variety which was
at one time regarded as amongst the rarest of precious
stones ; other Sapphires may present various shades of
yellow and grey, whilst others again may be entirely desti-
tute of colour ; these pure white Sapphires being sometimes
mistaken, when skilfully cut, for Diamonds. In fact, trans-
parent Corundums fit for jewellery may be ranged in two
groups ; those of red or reddish colours being called Ruby,
and those of any other tint passing under the designation
of Sapphire. The colours and shades of Sapphire are
very numerous.

Although Sapphires enjoy a fairly wide geographical
distribution, those which present the standard colour, or
the true corn-flower blue, are by no means common. The
principal Sapphire-yielding localities now worked are in
Siam, Burma, Cashmere, Ceylon, Australia and the United
States. Each of these localities will be separately described
in the course of this chapter. The Sapphires of Siam are
the finest at present in the market; those of Burma are too
dark or blackish ; Cashmere has yielded some very fine
stones, but others are only greyish-blue ; while those of
Ceylon are usually too pale in colour to be of great value,
though occasionally very fine Sapphires are found there.
Large deposits of Sapphire occur in Montana, but the
stones are mostly of green and other fancy tints, though
sometimes peacock-blue. The Sapphires of Australia are
generally too dark and full of iron, and not at present of
much commercial significance.

The Sapphire. 181

The most important Sapphires known in Europe are
two magnificent stones which were exhibited in the London
Exhibition of 1862, and in the Paris Exhibition of 1867.
The larger is a stone of a somewhat oval form, of a dark,
slightly inky, colour, free from defects. It weighs about
252 carats, and was cut from the rough by Mr. Loop in
1840. The other, though a smaller, is a richer coloured
stone. It was brought to this country from India (Indian
cut) in the year 1856. In its original form it was a badly-
shaped stone, weighing 225 carats, with a large yellow flaw
at the back, which marred the stone by casting a green
reflection into it. It was placed in the hands of the late
Mr. J. N. Forster, successor to Loop, who re-cut it, re-
moved the defects, and made it a splendid gem of 165
carats. This, which is by far the finest Sapphire of the
size in Europe, was sold in Paris, and is estimated to be
worth from £7,000 to £8,000.

In the Jardin dcs Plantes, in Paris, is a Sapphire
weighing 133x5 cara-ts, and without spot or fault. This
stone is said to have been originally found in Bengal by a
poor man ; it subsequently came into the possession of the
House of Raspoli, in Rome, who, in their turn, left it to a
German prince, who sold it to the French jewel merchant,
Perret, for £6,800.

In the late Hope Collection there was a large Sapphire
of a rich colour, which retained its beauty as well by
candle as by daylight. Another, in the Orleans Collec-
tion, was called in Madame de Genii's tale " Le Saphir
Merveilleux."

Notwithstanding the extreme hardness of the Sapphire,
there are some beautifully engraved specimens of this gem
still in existence. In the Cabinet of Strozzi, in Rome, is a
Sapphire, a masterpiece of art, with the profile of Hercules

1 82 The Sapphire.

engraven on it, by Cnei'us. A very remarkable and famous
Sapphire, belonging to the Marchese Rinuccini, weighing
fifty-three carats, has a representation of a hunting scene
engraven upon it, with the inscription " Constantius Aug."
Among a number of old family jewels there was found
by the author a few years' ago, a Sapphire beautifully
engraved with the crest and arms of Cardinal Wolsey.

The value of Sapphires is very much determined
by special circumstances ; colour, purity, and size must be
taken into consideration when fixing the sum to be paid.

Those imperfections which appear at times in the
Sapphire, and which lessen its value, are clouds, milky
half-opaque spots, white glassy stripes, rents, knots, a con-
gregating of colours at one spot, and silky-looking flakes
on the table of the stone. Whenever a Sapphire obtains
a purple tint it is an unfailing indication of the presence of
the silky defect somewhere in the stone. If a greenish tint
be observable, then a " milky flaw " will probably be de-
tected on careful examination.

SIAM SAPPHIRES.

Some of the finest Sapphires are obtained at the
present day from certain mines in Siam. They occur
principally in the Province of Battambong, where they
have been systematically worked only within the last
few years ; and they are also found, associated with Rubies,
in Chantaboon and Krat. Many of the stones yielded
by these mines present an unrivalled velvety blue colour,
and it fortunately happens that the Sapphires of over one
carat in weight are better in colour and in general quality
than smaller stones. Although the mines have only been
regularly worked for about thirty years, the occurrence of
Sapphires there was probably known to the natives long
previously.

The Sapphire. 183

The most productive Sapphire mines of Siam are those
of Pailin, about 50 miles from Battambong. The mining
district occupies an area of about six miles by two, and
comprises a number of villages, of which Bo Yaka and
Bo Din Nia are the chief.

The mines consist of rude excavations on the sides
of the mountain and in the valley. These excavations
usually take the form of pits, from four to six feet square.
The actual stratum which contains the Sapphires is a clay,
with gravel, about 20 inches thick, and occurring at variable
depths up to about 20 feet below the surface. The miners
work in gangs of two or three in each pit, [and raise the
Sapphire-earth in baskets, by means of ropes made with
creepers. The clay is washed, and the gems are picked out
of the residuum by hand. The miners are chiefly Shans,
who employ Laos as labourers.

Prof. H. Louis, in describing the Sapphire and Ruby
mines of Moung Klung, a district between the two
provinces of Chantaboon and Krat, expresses his opinion
that the gem-stones have been derived from the dis-
integration of the trap rocks, which enter largely into the
constitution of the neighbouring hill-ranges.

The principal gem-bearing country of Siam, so far as
at present known, covers a very large area, with the sea-
port of Chantaboon as a trade centre. It appears that the
gem mines in the province of Chantaboon have been
worked much longer than those of Battambong.

The Sapphire mines of Siam have been described
recently by Mr. H. Warington Smyth, who resided in
Siam for several years as a Government official directing
the mining industry of the country. He visited not only
the gem-mines of Battambong, Chantaboon and Krat, but

1 84 The Sapphire.

also those of Chiong Kawng, in the Lao States, near
Burma. These Sapphire-deposits were discovered by seme
Burmese Shan diggers in 1890. The gem-gravel is here
from 5 to 1 8 inches thick, and is associated with basalt,
from which the Sapphires were no doubt derived. Un-
fortunately the Sapphires were mostly either too dark or
too pale in colour, and it is believed that the workings are
now nearly deserted.

BURMA SAPPHIRES.

It is well known that Sapphires are found, associated
with Rubies, in Upper Burma, but they are not very
common and are usually of a dark colour. When Mr-
Atlay worked the Ruby mines for the author, before the
formation of the Company, he frequently obtained Sap-
phires in association with the Rubies. Mr. G. S. Streeter
on one occasion visited a famous mine which had yielded
Sapphires, but found it in a very dangerous condition, the
surrounding rock at the top being so rotten that he had to
be secured by means of ropes.

Although the Burmese Sapphires are not generally
of very fine quality, they occur of larger size than the
associated Rubies, and occasionally present exceptional
dimensions. About 20 years ago, a Sapphire of 820 carats
was found at Pyoung Goung (Bernardmyo), and was ex-
hibited for some time as a curiosity at Kyat-Pyin. It was
purchased by Gna Myo, then So Thugyi of Kyat-Pyin,
for 4,000 rupees, and was accepted by King Theebaw, in
lieu of a payment of monopoly rent of 10,000 rupees.

A Sapphire weighing nearly 400 carats, found at
Bawbadan, was purchased by Oo-dwa-gyi, the Woon of
the Ruby tract, for 6,000 rupees, and after passing into
Theebaw's possession, was sold to Moung Ba, a dealer in

SAPPHIRE in the Matrix.

The Sapphire. 185

Mandalay, for 20,000 rupees. It was then cut similar to
a brilliant, and reduced in weight to 120 carats, and was
ultimately disposed of in Calcutta.

The finest Sapphire ever seen in Burma was dug up
in King Mindoon Min's reign, at Wetloo village, between
Kyat-Pyin and Khabine. In the rough it weighed 253
carats, and, when Indian cut, 161 carats. It was pur-
chased for the king for 7,000 rupees, and passed ultimately
into the hands of Theebaw.

CASHMERE SAPPHIRES.

A remarkable discovery of Sapphires was made
about 20 years ago, in the Chinab valley of the Hima-
layas of Cashmere (Kashmir). According to the Rev.
A. W. Heyde, a Moravian missionary, who was for many
years resident in Lahul, they were first discovered by a
shikari about the year 1880. It appears that a landslip
had laid bare the rock, and exposed the Sapphires. The
precise locality was long kept secret, but from information
received by the author there is no doubt that it is situated
between the two villages of Soonjam and Machel, in the
neighbourhood of Padam, or Padar. The exact spot seems
to be difficult of access, and to be situated at a great
elevation, near the limit of perpetual snow. The sur-
rounding rocks consist of gneiss, with intercalated crystal-
line limestones, dipping to the east at an angle of about
40 degrees. The gneiss contains Garnets, and is intersected
by veins of granite in which the Corundum occurs,
associated with much Tourmaline. The Sapphires were
found loose among the granite detritus, in the side of a
valley, high up on the mountains.

By far the greater number of the Sapphires were
fragments of crystals more or less rolled. A description of

1 86 The Sapphire.

the crystals was published, soon after the discovery, by Mr.
F. R. Mallet, in the Records of the Geological Survey of
India. He pointed out that the crystals were mostly
double hexagonal pyramids, often irregular in shape, much
flattened, and deeply furrowed with horizontal striations.
A large number were milky, and of pale bluish-grey colour,
while many were rendered imperfect by " silkiness." The
Sapphires were in many cases penetrated by dark brown
and green Tourmaline. Specimens preserved in the author's
collection of rough Precious Stones exhibit these characters.

Some of the Cashmere Sapphires are of very fine
colour, but many are depreciated in value by a slight
opacity, and are streaky in a strong light.

The discovery of Sapphires in Cashmere is said to
have taken place in this wise. Near the spot where the
stones are found lived a " Bhot Lamba," or monk, who
first observed a pale blue vein in the rock. He broke off
pieces and exchanged them with traders for sugar and
tobacco, carefully concealing from whence he obtained
his treasures. Subsequently he disposed of a quantity
to some Lahul men, who took them to Simla. One piece
said to have been about a foot long and three or four inches
in circumference, he was persuaded to give to one of his
brotherhood, in order to have a " Shib " or idol made of it.
A lapidary who was to make it into an idol, finding it
extremely hard, came to the conclusion it must be of
value; and showed it to an official, who decided to
send it to the Maharajah of Cashmere, at Jummoo. On
enquiry being made, a messenger was despatched to bring
the Lamba who found the stone, and he was forced to
disclose the locality where he obtained it. The Maharajah
immediately sent a responsible official and a strong guard
to protect the place, until the actual value of the discovery
should be known.

The Sapphire. 187

Sapphires are also found by the Lacha Pass. A
native loaded 100 goats with them, thinking they were
lapis-lazuli, and came to Simla through Kulu, a journey of
about 10 days. Arriving at Simla, he tried to dispose of
them, but their value not being recognised, he could not
even obtain a rupee a tolla for them, which he would gladly
have taken, being in a state of semi-starvation. He then
proceeded to Delhi, where the jewellers, knowing them to
be Sapphires, gave him their value.

In 1895, Dr. Warth, of the Geological Survey of India,
discovered a large vein of blue Corundumj associated with
cyanite, near Balarampur, in Bengal.

CEYLON SAP}' HIRES.

In Ceylon the Sapphires are usually found with
other gems, either in the old river beds or in a bed of
gravel, which occurs at a depth of from 6 to 20 feet
beneath the surface. The villagers have sunk numerous
pits in this gravel, and work in gangs of six or eight.
After stripping off the surface soil, they probe the
ground with an iron rod, about six feet long, in order
to ascertain the position of the gem-gravel. When
found, the gravel is dug into, and tunnelled round the
bottom, as far as the firmness of the bed permits. The
gravel dug out is washed in wicker baskets and the
stones picked out by hand.

Whilst the greater part of the Corundum found in
these gravels is too coarse for use as gem-stones, there
are found in the old river gravels considerable quantities
of true Sapphires, more or less transparent, but often of
pale colour. Some of the Sapphires are white, and many
yellow, while others are parti-coloured, the blue being con-
fined in many cases to one part only of the crystal.
With the Sapphires are found rolled crystals of Zircon,
Tourmaline, Chrysoberyl, Spinel, and Quartz.

1 88 The Sapphire.

According to the Ceylon Observer, of May 4, 1889'
there had been recently found " a monster blue Sapphire,
the shape of a piece of jaggery, weighing down in the
scales 17 rupees."

MONTANA SAPPHIRES.

Although it is only recently that the importance of
the Sapphire mines of Montana has been recognized, the
existence of the gem-stones at this locality has long been
known. In working the gold-bearing drifts of the Missouri
river, near Helena, Montana, there were found numbers of
curiously-shaped stones which attracted the attention of
the gold-mining pioneers ; but after casual enquiry it was
stated by jewellers that they were nothing more than
quartz, and consequently of no value. The restless gold-
seeker, did not therefore trouble to collect them, and after
the failure of the supply of water, he moved on to what
he thought more promising fields, and the "curious crystals"
were forgotten. A few of them, however, were carried away
by the wandering miners, and ultimately found their way to
the jewellers of New York, where they were recognized as
Sapphires, and the fine gem-stones, after cutting, found a
sale at good prices.

It is stated by Mr. George B. Foote, one of the
pioneers of Helena, that the first discovery of these
gems was made at Eldorado Bar, in December, 1865.
The earliest scientific reference to the stones was from
the pen of the late Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, the eminent
mineralogist, who in a paper contributed to the American
Journal of Science for September, 1873, called attention to
the existence of the Sapphire in North Carolina and
Montana Territory.

The Montana Sapphires usually present the form of
hexagonal tabular crystals, more or less rolled, many being

The Sapphire. 189

fractured and splintered, and differing somewhat from the
ordinary Sapphire crystals of other well-known localities,
where the prevailing form is that of the double hexagonal
pyramid. The Montana stones present almost all colours
and shades, including greens, violets, yellows, blues and
pinks. The variety of delicate tints is extraordinary; and,
when well cut, the brilliancy of the stones is remarkable,
being inferior only to that of Diamonds, Many of the
stones have triangular markings, somewhat similar to those
on the Diamonds of South Africa. It is notable that some
of the Sapphires of green and light blue shades become
purple or red by artificial light. The lapidaries who have
cut them pronounce the stones to be unusually tough, and
their extreme hardness will enable them to sustain wear
without loss of lustre. Their brilliancy and beauty should
bring them into favour with all lovers of true gems. The
different forms of crystal, and their colours, are represented
in the accompanying plate.

The author, on visiting the property, mined several
thousand carats of gem-stones. Among them he found a
very curious crystal of Sapphire with a red stone embedded
in the centre, (see plate). The Sapphires are most plenti-
ful at or near the bed-rock of the old river-terraces or bars,
many of which are from 100 feet to 200 feet above the
present channel. These dry river-terraces are for the most
part covered with alluvial deposits of sand and gravel,
varying from a few inches to 20 feet in thickness. All this
alluvial detritus carries gold in paying quantity, and a
simple hydraulic apparatus is all that is required to mine
rapidly and cheaply for both Sapphires and gold.

The rocks in the vicinity of the mines are limestone,
quartzite, and dark argillaceous slate, probably of Lower
Silurian age. The bed-rock of the bars or river-terraces,

\go The Sapphire.

is a dark, friable slate, broken through by eruptive dykes,
in some places hornblendic and dioritic, in other places
quartzose. At one point near the river, the dykes appear
to be trachytic and porphyritic, with amygdules and dark
mica. At other points the dykes are more like grey lava.
Prof. H. A. Miers, has described one of the dykes as a mica-
augite-andesite. The dykes contain Sapphires, Garnets,
and other minerals, in well-defined crystals and in rounded
masses. It is evident that the denudation of these dykes
has set free the Sapphires, and other stones, now found
loose in the gravels with the gold.

Sapphires have recently been discovered at Yogo
Gulch, on the Judith River, and elsewhere near Utica, in
Montana. Some of the Yugo Gulch stones are of deep
colours, including cornflower and peacock blue. Their
mode of occurrence has been described by Mr. Kunz,
whilst the character of the crystals has been studied by
Mr. Pratt. The Sapphires have been traced to certain
igneous dykes composed of a rock recognized by Mr. Pirsson
as a dark basic larnprophyre, and he believes that the
Sapphires were actually formed in this rock as a true
matrix.

AUSTRALIAN SAPPHIRES.

The Sapphire is found in many parts of Australia,
but the stones are usually of too dark a colour to be of
value for jewellery. In the wide-spread auriferous drifts
of the goldfields of Victoria, the Sapphire is by no means
an uncommon mineral. Probably it has here been derived
from the basaltic rocks which, by their disintegration have
yielded most of the constituents of the gold-bearing
gravels.

The Sapphire is also widely distributed in New South
Wales, especially in the New England district, where it

The SappJiire. 191

occurs in the tin-drifts with other gems in the form of
small rolled pebbles, associated in many cases with alluvial
gold. The tin deposits south of Emmaville, and between
that town and the Severn, have been specially rich in
Sapphires. They have also been found in the drift near
Crookwell; and at Tumberumba, Berrima, Mittagong and
Kiandra. The Berrima Sapphires present a considerable
variety of colour, including brown, bronze and honey-
yellow ; some of the crystals are of large size, and the
bronze-coloured varieties are notable for their high density,
which may rise to 4*4, or even higher. In the opinion of
the Rev. J. Milne Curran, who has paid much attention to
the subject, the matrix of the New South Wales Sapphire
is basalt; and by the disintegration of this rock the stones
are set free, and so find their way into the alluvia and drifts.

Queensland likewise yields Sapphires, especially near
Withersfield, more than 200 miles from Rockhampton.
Here they occur, with zircons and other gem stones, in a
drift containing pebbles and boulders of quartz, resting on
a decomposed surface of gneiss. Some of the Sapphires
are of Royal blue colour, but most are dark blue ; a few
are green, while others exhibit alternations of blue and
green laminae. Unfortunately most of the Australian
Sapphires cut too black, though now and then a small
piece of really fine colour may be taken off the edge of a
large stone.

In 1890, it was reported that a fine Sapphire had
been found by Mr. T. Bakhop, of Lower Junction^
Tasmania, on one of his properties in the north-eastern
part of the island.

CANADIAN CORUNDUM.

Important deposits of Corundum have lately been
discovered in the province of Ontario. It is true that they

1 92 The Sapphire.

have as yet yielded only very few stones which are fine
enough to be cut for purposes of jewellery, but it is by no
means improbable that when a lower depth is reached they
may furnish Sapphires of better quality.

In 1896, Mr. W. F. Ferrier, of the Geological Survey
of Canada, called attention to the occurrence of Corundum
in the township of Carlow, in the northern parts of Hast-
ing's County. The mineral had previously been detected,
but was generally regarded as apatite or as pyroxene.
Subsequent investigation by Mr. Barlow and others proved
the existence of a great " Corundum belt," stretching for a
length of about 30 miles, with an average width of 2 miles.
The Corundum is usually found in crystals and irregular
masses, sometimes of large size, embedded in dykes of a
felspathic rock, like pegmatite, running through the
Laurentian gneiss ; and it has also been discovered in
nepheline-syenite, associated with the gneissose series.

Most of the Canadian Corundum is of brownish or
greyish colour ; but occasionally it is blue, and in the town-
ship of Brudenell it presents varieties of greenish, yellow
and even rose-red tints, though the last is extremely rare.
The most Sapphire-like varieties hitherto found have been
obtained from the township of Methuen, in. Peterborough
County.

Some of the Canadian Corundum which I have had
cut has yielded small cabochon Sapphires of fair colour.

SAPPHIRE.

Composition Alumina.

Specific Gravity ... ... 4, or thereabouts.

Hardness ... ... ... 9-

System of Crystallization ... Hexagonal.

Form... ... ... ... Double six-sided py-
ramids, or prisms ; usually as rolled crystals.

* t

* %

t «

ROUGH MONTANA SAPPHIRES AND RUBIES.

CHAPTER V.

STAR STONES.

ERTAIN varieties of Corundum, especially the
greyish-blue semi-transparent Sapphires when
cut en cabochon, shew a star of light, more or
less perfect, reflected from the convex surface.
Such stones are therefore commonly called Star Stones,
whilst by the Ancients they were designated Asterias.
According to Plutarch, the River Sangaris produced a gem
called Aster, which was luminous in the dark, and was
known to the Phrygians as Ballen, or " The King." A gem
called Asterites, found inside a huge fish called " Pan," from
its resemblance to that god, is also described by Ptolemy
Hephaestion. The term Asteria has been used by different
authors in various senses at various times ; but there can
be no doubt that Pliny understood by it the same gem that
we do now, A purplish Star Sapphire was known to Pliny
as the Ceraunia, or "Lightning-stone," and it was probably
the same stone that was termed Astrapia.

The optical phenomenon presented by star-stones is
known as Asterism, and its cause is to be sought in the
internal structure of the crystal ; all the Star-Stones ex-
hibiting a peculiar laminated texture, and generally pre-
senting, on the basal plane, a system of fine striations
related to the direction of the lines of light, which form by
their intersection the chatoyant star. In the Star Sap-
phires there seem to be three sets of structural planes, the

edges of which intersect at angles of 60°; and when a

194 Star Stones.

transverse section of a hexagonal pyramid is made, these
lines are seen as triangular striae From each set of parallel
lines a narrow transverse luminous band is reflected, and
the crossing of these three bands of light produces a star
of six rays. Occasionally a secondary system of lines is
apparent, thus giving rise to a twelve-rayed star. Great
skill is required on the part of the lapidary in dealing with
such stones to produce the most effective result.

Although the majority of Asterias are Sapphire, the
same optical phenomenon is occasionally exhibited by
other gems. The purple and reddish Corundums, when
judiciously cut, shew Asterism, thus forming Star Rubies ;
and in like manner we may have Star Emeralds and Star
Garnets.

The Orientals have ever entertained a peculiar venera-
tion for Star Stones, but only of late years have they been
of any value in England. The finest Star Ruby lately
seen was valued at £200. The price of these gems is
mainly determined by quality and colour ; small Star
Sapphires range from £2 upwards. Star Rubies obtain
higher prices ; but Star-stones, of a secondary rank, are of
little value.

CHAPTER VL

SPINEL AND BALAS.

NDER the generic name Spinel several minerals
are included, as the Spinel Ruby, the Balas
Ruby, and the Pleonaste.

Differing among themselves in colour and
other trivial characteristics, they all agree in possessing
approximately the same chemical composition. They are,
in fact, aluminates of magnesia, or compounds of alumina
and magnesia, associated with variable proportions of
other metallic oxides, such as those of chromium and iron,
to which the colours are probably due.

Few minerals enjoy a wider range of colour than the
Spinel. Among its varied tints we may mention carmine,
red, reddish-brown, rose-red, various tints of orange, indigo
blue, green, purple, puce, violet, and even white and yellow
Some varieties are opaque and dark-coloured, or even
black, but these have no value as ornamental stones
Indeed, it is only the so-called Precious Spinel, which is
of use to the jeweller. By ancient writers the Red Spinels
were probably included, with several other stones, under
the general name of Carbunculus.

Precious Spinels are found either detached, as loose
pebbles, or embedded in granular limestone, or in granite
rocks. In Burma, Ceylon, and Badakshan Spinel occurs
in well-formed, sharp-angled crystals which are regular
octahedra ; while in many gem sands it is found as rolled
crystals,1 accompanied with zircon, garnet, magnetic iron
ore, and other minerals. .

The form of Spinel, which is generally that of the
regular octahedron, enables it to be readily distinguished

196 Spinel and B alas.

from the true or Oriental Ruby, with which it has been
sometimes confounded. It may also be distinguished by
its inferior hardness, and specific gravity.

A peculiarity of Spinel is that the light which is
reflected from the depth of the gem, no matter what the
colour of the stone, is always of a pale yellow. The lustre
is vitreous, and the gem displays every degree of trans-
parency. The refraction is simple. It is rendered electric
by friction, but not by heat ; differing in the latter respect
from Topaz, which is distinctly pyro-electric.

In the International Exhibition of 1862 there were
two very fine Spinels ; one from India was cut en cabochon
forming an octagon-shaped stone, of perfect colour, and free
from flaws. It weighed 197 carats. This was cut to an
Si-carat "perfection stone." The other Spinel was also
an octagon-shaped stone, of perfect colour, very " spread,"
and free from flaws. It weighed IO2J carats, and was
re-cut, weighing after cutting J2\ carats. It is strange that
both these stones arrived from India in the same year,
viz., 1 86 1.

In the Ruby mines of Upper Burma, Spinel is a very
common mineral, forming in many cases a conspicuous part
of the gem-bearing detritus. Fine octahedral crystals have
been found embedded in the calcspar, in which the true
Rubies occur, and it is also found in beautifully sharp
octahedra, and in flat hemitrope crystals, of small size,
associated with Rubies in the Ruby-earth.

Spinel also occurs in Afghanistan in crystalline
micaceous limestone. There are famous mines of Balas
Rubies at Badakshan in Usbekistan, a part of Tartary.
The mines were known to the Emperors of Delhi. They
are near the Oxus, not far from Shighnan. There is a
belief among the natives that two large Rubies always
lie near each other : thus it is that the fortunate finder of

Spinel and Balas. 197

the one hides it until he has found a twin stone ; failing
this, they are said to break the large one in order to
keep up the superstition.

Spinels are found in Australia, especially in New
South Wales where they are by no means uncommon in
auriferous deposits, as on the Cudgegong, Peel, Macquarie,
Severn and other rivers, where gem-stones are found as
rolled pebbles in the gravels, or drifts.

The Balas or Balais Ruby, is a dark variety of Spinel,
with a tinge of blue appearing at the angles of the octahedron,
which gives it a milky kind of shimmer. The colour is
probably due to chromic acid. The name " Balas " or
" Balaksh " applied to this stone, is said to be a corruption
of Badakshan, one of the localities which, as stated above,
yields the Spinel.

Pleonaste is an opaque black variety, which was called
Ceylonite, by Rome de 1'Isle, who analyzed it, with a number
of other crystals brought from Ceylon. It was Haiiy who,
seeing its form resembled that of the Spinel, desired to
give it a special position in his system of minerals, and
named it Pleonaste, which signifies superfluity. Further
investigation showed that it was .in reality a black Spinel.

A black iron-spinel, known as Hercynite, occurs in
the form of rolled crystals as a frequent companion to the
Sapphires of Siam, and is termed by the gem-diggers nin.

SPINEL.
Composition — Alumina ... ... 72

Magnesia ... ... 28

100

Specific gravity —

Varies from 3^59 in an aurora-red speci-
men to 371 in one of indgo-blue colour.
(Prof. Church).

Hardness between 7 and 8

System ... ... Isometric or Cubic.

CHAPTER VII.

THE EMERALD.

HE Emerald, from a mineralogist's point of
view, belongs to a class of stones altogether
different from that which embraces the
precious stones already described, inasmuch
as it is essentially a mineral silicate, consisting largely of
the substance known to chemists as Silica. The silica is
itself an oxide of an element termed Silicon. In the
Emerald the silica is combined with the oxides of two
metals — one of them being aluminium, the basis of the
Ruby and Sapphire ; while the other is an exceedingly
rare metal, known as gluci-num or beryllium. The former
name is derived from the sweet taste of some of its com-
pounds— from the Greek word for " sweet " — whilst it
receives the latter from its occurrence in the Beryl.

Just as it was shown that the Ruby and the Sapphire
are identical, save in colour, so the chemist has found that
the Emerald, the Beryl, and the Aquamarine are practically
the same mineral, the distinctions between the three varie-
ties being due to differences of colour and other character-
istics of only trivial value to the chemist, though of immense
importance to the jeweller as affecting their commercial
value.

That the true Emerald was known to, and held in
estimation by, the Ancients, may be inferred from the fact
that ornaments of Emeralds have been excavated from
Pompeii and Herculaneum; that similar ornaments have

The Emerald. 199

been dug up from the ruins of old Rome, and have also
been found on Egyptian mummies.

Pliny states that the Emerald stood high in the
estimation of the Ancients, and some confirmation of this
is derived from an old Hebrew tradition that if a serpent
fixes its eyes on an Emerald it becomes blind. In the
Bible the rainbow is said to be " like unto an Emerald."

There can be no doubt that many ancient writers
confounded under the general term Smaragdus several
distinct minerals of green colour, such as true Emeralds,
green Jasper, Malachite, Chrysocolla, green Fluor Spar,
and perhaps even green glass.

According to Pliny, the most celebrated Emerald
mines in former times were in the rocks near Coptos ;
and the stones obtained from this region were admired
for their brillant colour. Mohammed Ben Mansur (i3th
century) described the Emerald mines as being on the
borders of the land of negroes, and yet belonging to the
kingdom of Egypt, the stones found there being dug out of
talc and red earth. De Laet thinks that the same region
supplied Emeralds as late as the i/th century.

The tiara of Pope Julius II. contained an Emerald
somewhat about an inch in length and one-and-a-quarter
thick. It was in the shape of a short cylinder, rounded at
one of its extremities. This was found probably in
Ethiopia, the modern Etbai.

Turning to the Emeralds of the New World, we find
Prescot, in his " Conquest of Mexico," writing as
follows (vol. i, p. 125): — " The a^e of iron has followed
that of brass, in fact as well as in fiction. They found a
substitute in an alloy of tin and copper, and, with tools
made of this bronze, could cut not only metals, but
with the aid of a siliceous dust, the hardest substances,

2OO The Emerald.

as Basalt, Porphyry, Amethysts, and Emeralds. They
fashioned these last, which were found very large, into
many curious and fantastic forms." Elsewhere (vol. iii.,
p. 214), in describing certain spoils, he mentions a large
Emerald " cut in pyramidal shape, of so extraordinary a
size, that the base was as broad as the palm of the hand/'
And in another place (p. 287) mention is made of fine
Emeralds of a wonderful size and brilliancy, which had
been cut by the Aztecs into the shapes of flowers,
fishes, and other fantastical forms.

In the Manka Valley of Peru the natives appear to
have paid divine homage to a magnificent Emerald of the
size of an ostrich egg, which they named the goddess
of Emeralds. The priests enhanced the value by dis-
playing it on high festivals only, when, it was alleged,
Emeralds were peculiarly acceptable to the idol, and thus
the temple came into possession of a vast number of
these costly gems, which on the discovery of Peru by the
Spaniards, fell into the hands of the conquerors ; but
Pizarro and his followers, " like bad lapidaries " writes
Purchas, broke many to fragments, supposing they would
possess the adamantine property of the Diamond.

After the discovery of Peru, Emeralds became less
rare in Europe, and jewellers and lapidaries much pre-
ferred the Peruvian stones ; hence the most beautiful of
Emeralds are always called Spanish Emeralds. Joseph
D'Acosta, who himself visited the Emerald mines of
New Granada and Peru, said that at first these stones
came to Europe in such numbers, that on the ship in which
he returned from America to Spain, in 1587, were two chests
each containing one hundredweight of Emeralds.

The Emerald is found crystallized in six-sided prisms
or columns, without striations, and therefore, unlike those

THE SOUTH AMERICAN EMERALD in Matrix

The Emerald. 201

of Beryl, which are usually striated vertically. The colour
varies from what is called emerald-green to grass-green,
and greenish- white. Subjected to trie dichroiscope, its colour
is resolved into a yellowish-green and a bluish-green.

The variety of opinion as to the source of the beauti-
ful colour of the Emerald is very interesting. According
to most authorities it owes its beauty to the chromium
which it contains. On the other hand, M. Lewy, who
analysed with great care the Emeralds from the Muzo
mines of Colombia, found that they contained organic
matter in the form of some hydro-carbon, and that the
intensity of the colour depended upon the amount of
this organic matter contained in the Emerald. The green
pigment of the Emerald was supposed by him to be
similar to the colouring matter of leaves, called chloro-
phyll. The conclusions of M. Lewy have not, however,
been verified by other chemists ; and the experiments of
Mr. Greville Williams and others tend to shew that the
colouring matter of the Emerald is, after all, an oxide
of chromium.

The cleavage of the Emerald is in four directions, but
the only perfect cleavage is that parallel to the terminal
plane. Its fracture is conchoidal and uneven, and its
lustre vitreous.

The value of an Emerald depends greatly upon its
colour, and freedom from flaws ; a very fine dark velvety
coloured stone, free from flaw, is seldom procurable. Per-
haps there is no stone which suffers more than the Emerald
from inequality of structure, colour and transparency.

THE EMERALDS OF MUZO.

The most famous Emerald mines of the world are
those of Muzo, situated in 5° 39' 50" N. latitude, and

2O2 The Emerald.

74° 25' W. longitude, on the banks of the river Minero,
about 80 miles N.N.W. of Santa Fe de Bogata, in the
Republic of Colombia. They were discovered by Lanchero
in 1555, but the Spaniards did not commence working
until 1568. The mines are Government property, but are
leased to a Colombian-French syndicate, at a yearly rental
of £2,250.

The Emerald mines are situated in a very wild
country, with rough roads, in some parts almost impass-
able, traversing dangerous passes in the Andes. The
workings are in a basin-like hollow in the mountains,
suggesting the crater of a vast volcano, but the rocks are
not of igneous character.

It appears that the rocks are chiefly black bituminous
shales and limestone, traversed by veins of white calcite
and iron-pyrites. In these veins the Emeralds occur,
sometimes embedded and sometimes loose in free cavities ;
but their occurrence is very irregular, and the mining
consequently becomes highly precarious.

About 400 native workmen are employed, under five
or six overseers, in the great quarry-like excavations which
constitute the Emerald mines. The working is of quite a
primitive character. To obtain the Emeralds the workmen
begin by cutting steps on the inclined walls of the mine,
which may be a thousand feet high, in order to make firm
resting-places for their feet. The overseer places the men
at certain distances from each other, to cut out a wide step
with the help of pickaxes and crowbars. The loosened
stones fall by their own weight to the bottom of the
precipice. When the rubbish has accumulated, a sign is
given to let the waters loose from a reservoir above ; and
these rush down with great vehemence, carrying the
fragments of rocks with them. This operation is repeated

The Emerald. 203

until the beds are exposed, in which the Emeralds are
found. On the summit of the mountains, and quite near
to the mouth of the mine, are large reservoirs, whose waters
are shut off by means of water-gates or sluices, which can
be easily shifted when the labourers require the water.
When the waters are freed, which occurs about every
quarter of an hour while working, they rush with great
rapidity down the walls of the mine, and on reaching the
bottom of it they are conducted by means of an under-
ground canal through the mountain into a basin.

Workings at the Muzo Mines were stopped in the
middle of the last century, and it was rumoured that fires
had broken out, and that the mines were unsafe. It was
not until 1844 that active operations were resumed. About
that time a Colombian named Paris — after whom the rare
mineral Parisite was christened — got out some fine stones
and sold them for large sums in Europe and in the United
States. A French company was afterwards formed, and
during the Empire all the finest stones went direct to the
Paris market. At the present time Emeralds of fine colour
are of great rarity.

EGYPTIAN EMERALDS.

Probably the earliest known Emeralds were those
obtained from the mines in the Eastern Desert of Egypt.
The scientific expedition to the Northern Etbai, despatched
by H. H. the late Khedive, in the spring of 1891, made a
somewhat detailed examination of the old workings, and
specimens were brought home by Mr. E. A. Floyer, to
whose courtesy the author is indebted for the following
description of the mines.

Though the mines are mentioned by the ancient

204 The Emerald.

historians Strabo, Diodorus, Agatharchides, and others, no
description of them appears to have been written from
actual examination. This probably arose from the diffi-
culty of visiting them. Olympiodorus laments his ill
success in this direction, and it is probable that a jealous
watch was kept over the miners.

The Emeralds of Egypt, are, however, often mentioned
with high praise. Cleopatra gave, as presents to ambassa-
dors, portraits of herself engraved on Emeralds, and the
stones during her reign appear to have been considered as
strictly royal property.

Maundeville, 500 years ago, described Egypt as "a
country of fair Emeralds."

When and under what circumstances the mines were
abandoned must remain matter of conjecture. They pro-
bably shared the fate of the numerous gold mines and
topaz workings which are found in their neighbourhood.

All the mines in Egypt appear to have been first
worked by some unskilled people, possibly those negroid
tribes, who now work the copper and iron mines in the
Soudan. It was to these people that Herodotus, not know-
ing why they burrowed in the earth, gave the name of
Troglodytes or cave-dwellers.

These people were probably driven south about 2,000
years ago by the Greek miners employed under Ptolemy
after the death of Alexander the Great At each mining
town may still be seen the open-air cuttings and the rude
stone dwellings of an ancient mining people. And close
by these are found in almost every case, the temple, the
well-built rectangular houses and covered galleries of their
European supplanters. There is hardly a quartz reef
which does not bear marks of working.

The Emerald mines are in the centre of a great

The Emerald. 205

mineral field formed by a depression in the long range of
mountains which runs along the Red Sea Coast.

To the north, in latitude 27°, this range rises into the
great porphyry peaks whence Mr. Brindley brings the
Imperial stone which the Romans prized for purposes
of decoration.

The range is then hollow-backed, until in latitude 24°,
the traveller climbs the lofty porphyry peaks of Hullus,
and, seated on the edge of a wall, sheer 1,500 feet, looks
over a hundred miles of sea and mountain,

Between these points, and equally between Hullus
and Elba, to the south, the hills are honeycombed with
gold mines, and scarified by topaz workings : the last are
still in progress.

But the most interesting part of the range is that in
which are found the Emerald mines of Sikait and of
Jebel Zabbara, the latter word possibly a corruption of
Smaragdus.

There are two main Emerald mining centres. That
of Sikait, approached from the sea by the Wadi Jamal, is
the largest and most extensive. Here are very ancient
rock temples. The priests of old reaped a rich harvest
from the superstition of the miners.

Of a later date than these rock temples, is a good
masonry temple, admirably proportioned, roofed in part
with great slabs of shining schist, and imposingly placed
on a spur of rock running into the Sikait valley. Here
are the ruins of a well-built town, and along the valley and
in all the hills are some hundreds of shafts of varying
depth. The hills, some 600 or 700 feet in relative height,
are mainly formed of a soft talcose schist veined with
quartz and consolidated by contorted beds of a brown
brittle metamorphic rock.

2o6 The Emerald.

The hills bear the appearance of a great rabbit-warren.
Everywhere are holes, each with its talus of silver-grey
powder streaming down the hillside. The talc occurs in
solid white blocks, coloured green, and other tints, and often
bright yellow like gold. When climbing the hills the
feeling underfoot is that of walking on soft dead wood.
Square towers mark the mountain tops. Some were watch
towers, whence the watchmen guarded the miners and
gazed over the blue sea, looking eagerly for the expected
ships of wine and food. Other towers appear to have
been magazines.

Some ten miles north of Sikait are the Jebel Zabbara
mines. Here the principal shafts are in low spurs, doubled
up in syncline and anticline in rapid repetition, and jutting
from a mass of schist some 1,200 feet in relative height.

Here, among the ruins of the old houses, are the stone
houses and ovens of the Albanian miners who in 1819
were placed by Muhammad Ali under the supervision of
Cailliaud, a young French silversmith who earned, later
on, a great reputation as traveller and mineralogist in the
Soudan with Ibraham Pasha.

Cailliaud's account of his discovery of these mines
has been published by the French Academy. Why they
were abandoned is nowhere stated, but it was probably
owing to Cailliaud being commanded to accompany
the expedition to the Soudan, and to the stoppage of
supplies to the miners the moment his presence was
removed.

These Albanians did an immense amount of work if
they did all that has been done. In one valley the silvery
talus cannot amount to less than 20,000 to 25,000 tons.
1 hey made good square-sectioned shafts. Across them
are wedged stout boughs of trees. Mr. Floyer descended

The Emerald. 207

one shaft and took out string to the length of 450 feet.
The descent was a steep incline, with occasional perpendi-
cular drops of six to ten feet. At this depth was a
chamber where were ranged some thirty baskets of ore
all ready for raising to the surface. It was difficult to be-
lieve that the baskets were seventy years old.

The old Emerald mines of Egypt have recently been
visited on my behalf by Mr. H. W. Seton-Karr. In
December, 1897, he explored the ancient workings of
Sikait and of Zabbara, and brought home a quantity of
rough Emerald, some of which has yielded stones of
excellent quality. The prevailing rock, forming the matrix
of the Emerald, seems to be mica schist, of various colours.
In the white schist he found small Emeralds of brilliant
green colour ; in the grey schist, the crystals were larger
but not of such bright hues ; whilst in the black schist,
the Emeralds though very large are of such poor quality
as to be practically worthless.

It seems unlikely that these mines, which were so
extensively worked by the ancients and yielded valuable
gems like those of Cleopatra, should be exhausted.
Believing that they will be well-worth re-opening and
working by our improved modern methods of mining, I
have applied to the Egyptian Government for a concession,
and at the time of writing am awaiting a reply to my
application.

RUSSIAN EMERALDS.

Enreralds were first discovered in Russia in 1830,
when a charcoal-burner found crystals of the mineral at
the roots of a tree which had been overturned by the wind.
He took the crystals to Ekaterinburg, where the traders in
precious stones at once recognized their value. This

2o8 The Emerald.

discovery led directly to the regulated working of the bed>
which yielded in the first years some fine specimens — one
of the extraordinary weight of loij carats; but, unfortu-
nately, the yield gradually decreased.

The Emerald mines are situated on the right bank of
the River Tokowoia, about 85 versts to the east of
Ekaterinburg, on the Asiatic slope of the Ural mountains.
The Emeralds occur in a matrix of mica-schist, and are
associated with Alexandrite, Chrysoberyl, Phenacite, etc.
Some of these Emeralds are of very fine colour, but most
of them — especially the large crystals — are of inferior
quality, being much flawed and in some cases containing
enclosures of mica. At present but very few Emeralds are
yielded by Russia.

- AUSTRIAN EMERALDS.

Crystals of Emerald are found embedded in a dark
mica-schist in the Habachthal (or Heubachthal), which is
situated in a wild part of the Salzburg Alps, and at a great
elevation above sea level. Some of the crystals display
excellent colour, but most of them are unfortunately small,
and of no importance commercially. The occurrence,
however, is of scientific interest, inasmuch as the Emerald
is here found in mica-schist, exactly as it occurs in the Urals
and in Egypt. The Salzburg Emeralds are said to have
been known to the ancient Romans, and at the present
time the locality is being explored in the hope of discovering
a supply of stones fit for jewellery.

Emeralds are also found near Snarum, in Norway, but
only as mineral specimens.

AUSTRALIAN EMERALDS.

In the year 1890, attention was called to the discovery
of Emeralds in New South Wales The stones were first

The Emerald. 209

observed among the material thrown out from certain tin-
workings, and investigation soon traced them to their source
in an actual vein. The locality was situated about seven
miles North-East of Emmaville, better known as Vegetable
Creek, not far from the Queensland frontier.

The Emeralds occurred in a true fissure lode formation,
from 2 to 4 feet wide, between well-defined walls, and
were found in shoots or bunches at intervals.

The country is composed of granite or slate, and it was
almost at the junction of the two formations that the first
deposit of Emeralds was discovered, at a depth of 1 1 feet
from the surface.

The Emeralds were associated with quartz, topaz, fluor-
spar, mispickel (arsenical pyrites), tin-stone and kaolin.
The locality was visited by Prof. E. David, at that time
Government Geologist, who reported favourably upon the
occurrence of the mineral, and the prospects of the
exploration.

Workings were carried on for some years by the
Emerald Proprietory Company, and a large number of
stones were obtained, one weighing as much as 23 carats.
Most of them however, were of pale tint, and lacked the
rich colour of typical Emerald, and it is believed that the
workings were ultimately abandoned as un remunerative.

EMERALDS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Although rough beryls, sometimes of large size, are
known in many parts of the United States, the only State
which has yielded the chrome-green variety, forming the
true Emerald is North Carolina.

In 1880, Mr. W. E. Hidden discovered Emeralds at
Warren farm in Alexander County, where they were

2io The Emerald.

associated with the green spodumene which will be subse-
quently described in the chapter on Hiddenite. The
locality was considered sufficiently promising to justify the
formation of a Company to work the stones, called the
Emerald and Hiddenite Mining Company ; but the
workings have not proved successful.

EMERALD.

Composition — Silica ... ... ... 68

Alumina... ... ... 18

Glucina, &c. ... ... 14

100

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 27

Hardness *'•-,.. ••• • •• ••• 7'5

System ... ... ... ... Hexagonal.

Form Hexagonal and di-hexagonal prisms,
variously modified.

CHRYSOBERYL CAT'S EYE, in the Rough (Part Polished).

CHAPTER VIII.

THE TRUE OR ORIENTAL CAT'S EYE.
THE CHRYSOBERYl.

HE true or Oriental Cat's Eye is a rare variety
of the Chrysoberyl or Cymophane — a stone of
extreme hardness, in this respect being only
inferior to the Diamond and the Sapphire-
It is characterized by possessing a remarkable play of light
in a certain direction, resulting, it is supposed, from a pecu-
liarity in its internal structure, which appears to be
minutely striated. This ray of light, or " line " as it is
termed by jewellers, shines in fine and well-polished speci-
mens with a phosphorescent lustre. In India the lines of
light are called betas, and the price increases according to
these " betas."

The Chrysoberyl Cat's Eye comes principally from
Ceylon, where it is found in company with Sapphires,
Zircons, and other gem-stones ; and it has also been
found in China. It is of various colours, ranging from
pale-straw colour through all shades of brown, and from
very pale apple-green to the deepest olive. Some
specimens, much sought for by Americans, are almost
black. The line, no matter what ground-colour the stone
may possess, is nearly always white, and more or less irides-
cent ; occasionally, but very rarely, however, the line is of
a golden hue. This lustre is most beautiful when seen in
full sun-light, or by gas-light, when the lines become more
defined and vivid.

2 1 2 The True or Oriental Cats Eye.

This gem is valued principally according to the per-
fection and brilliancy of the luminous line, which should be
sharp and well-defined, not very broad, and should rur
evenly from end to end across the middle of the stone. The
colour does not much influence the value, some jewellers
preferring one tint, some another. On the whole, perhaps,
the most popular tints are honey colour, clear apple-green,
and dark olive: all of these form a splendid back-ground,
and contrast well with the line. It is quite impossible to
give any satisfactory scale of values for this gem, its
estimation depending much on personal appreciation and
taste.

In India it has always been much prized; it is held
in peculiar veneration as a charm against witchcraft, and
is the last jewel a Cingalese will part with. The specimens
most esteemed by the Indians are those of a dark olive
colour, having the ray so bright on each edge as to appear
double. It is indeed wonderfully beautiful, with its soft,
deep colour, and mysterious gleaming streak, ever shifting,
like a restless spirit, from side to side as the stone is
moved ; now glowing at one spot, now at another. No
wonder that an imaginative and superstitious people regard
it with awe and wonder, and believing it to be the abode of
some genii, dedicate it to their gods as a sacred stone.

It should be pointed out that much confusion exists
with reference to the Cat's Eye, since this name is also
applied to certain fibrous varieties of Quartz. The pres-
ence of parallel fibres of asbestos included in the Quartz,
gives rise to a more or less definite band of light, with
a silky lustre, running across the direction of the fibres
when the stone is cut with a convex surface (en cabochon).
This chatoyant quartz is found largely in Ceylon, and on
the west coast of India, where it is known as " Coast Cat's

The True or Oriental Cat's Eye.

213

Eye" : it occurs chiefly in various shades of yellow, or
brown. A greenish variety is found near Hof, in Bavaria,
and is largely cut as an ornamental stone; but none of the
Quartz Cat's Eye has much value. Even when most per-
fect, it cannot be compared for beauty with the Oriental
Cat's Eye, for which, side by side, it ought not to be mis-
taken, even by the uninitiated.

It may be useful to contrast the characteristics of the
two minerals : —

Description of true
Chrysoberyl Cafs Eye.

Colour — Various shades of
yellow, brown, green,
and black,

Ray — Iridescent.

Lustre — Brilliant.

Hardness 8*5

Specific Gravity ... 3*8

Infusible before the blow-
pipe, and not affected by
acids.

Sometimes shewing a beau-
tiful dichroism.

j 80 alumina,
Approxi- | 20 glucina ;

mate colouring mat-
Chem. Com- ter — oxide of
iron.

Description of Common
Quartz Cat's Eye.

Col }ur — Various shades of
yellow, greyish green
and brown only.

Ray— Dull.

Lustre — Dull.

Hardness 7.

Specific Gravity ... 2*6

Melts with Soda to a clear
glass. Soluble in Hydro-
fluoric Acid.

Never dichroic.

/48 Silicon,
51 Oxygen,

Chem.ComJ with a small

' amount of

oxide of iron,
&c.

CHAPTER IX.

ALEXANDRITE.

HIS stone was named after the Czar of Russia,
Alexander II., having been discovered on his
birthday, in 1830. It owes its celebrity to its
prominent hues of red and green, and as these
are the military colours, the stone became much sought
after in Russia. The Russian Alexandrite can rarely be
shown to the best advantage in consequence of defects of
structure, as it is usually flawed with crevices which make
successful cutting and polishing extremely difficult. The
variety found in Ceylon is more easy of manipulation.

Alexandrite is especially remarkable for its strongly
marked difference of colour, according as it is viewed by
natural or by artificial light. The finest stones present a
bright green, or deep olive green colour, by daylight ;
whereas, at night, artificial light, such as that of gas or
a candle, brings out a soft columbine red or raspberry tint,
or purple. It has been said that the Alexandrite is an
emerald by day and an amethyst at night.

The Alexandrite is strongly dichroic, while some
varieties are even trichroic.

Chemical analysis shows that the Alexandrite is a
variety of Chrysoberyl. The author has seen, in the course
of his experience, two or three stones with a perfect Cat's
Eye line, yet subject to the characteristic change of colour
by artificial light : such stones are called Alexandrite Cats
Eyes. In order to display the line of light, it is, of course,
necessary to cut the stone en cabochon instead of facetting it.

ALEXANDRITE, in the Rough.

Alexandrite. 215

The original Alexandrite came from the Emerald
mine of Tokowoia, in the Ural mountains, but was found
only in small quantities. The principal supply is now
obtained from Ceylon, where, however, it is far from
plentiful. The market value of this stone is extremely
variable : and sometimes as much as £20 per carat is paid
for a fine stone.

ALEXANDRITE.

Composition : —

Alumina ... ... ... ... ... 79

Glucina 18

Iron and chromic oxide, &c. ... ... 3

ioo

Specific Gravity 3.7

Hardness ... ... ... ... ... 8*5

System of Crystallization . . . Trimetric

Form of Crystal Usually six-sided

twins.

CHAPTER X.

THE OPAL.

|ICOLS in his curious old book entitled " A
Lapidary," written two centuries and a half
ago, gives a quaint description of this lovely
stone. He says, •* The Opal is a precious
stone which hath in it the bright fiery flame of the
Carbuncle, the fine, refulgent purple of an Amethyst, and
a whole sea of the Emerald's green glory ; and every one
of them shining with an incredible mixture and very much
pleasure." Boetius described it as " the fairest and most
pleasing of all other jewels, by reason of its various colours."
Cardanus says, " I bought one for 1 5 crowns, which gave
me as much pleasure as a Diamond of 500 aureos."

There is a strange history given by Pliny of an Opal
about the size of a hazel nut, which was possessed by the
Senator Nonius, and was valued at ^"20,000 of our money.
Nonius, who was proscribed by Marc Anthony for the
sake of this gem, made his escape, carrying off the ring
with him, as the sole relic of his fortune. He preferred
exile with his Opal to living in Rome without it.

The Opal is chemically a hydrous form of silica, and
a great deal of the mineral is quite unlike the beautiful
variety used for jewellery.

Several kinds of Opal are indeed known to the min-
eralogist. Most of it is destitute of beauty, and is
hence termed Common Opal. Other specimens present
translucency but no colour ; these are distinguished as

QUEENSLAND OPAL in the Matrix.

The Opal. 217

Semi-Opal. Certain Opals from Zimapan, in Mexico,
possess a bright orange-red tint, and are used to a limited
extent as an ornamental stone under the name of Fire-Opal.
But the rare and beautiful variety, which is familiar to
every, one by its unique colours, is distinguished scien-
tifically as Precious or Noble Opal, though known to the
jeweller simply as " Opal."

The value of the Opal lies in the depth and variety of
the rainbow-like tints which it exhibits. This colour is
not due to any pigment in the stone, but is an optical
phenomenon, probably the result of a number of fissures
which traverse it, the light being decomposed by the
delicate striations on the walls of these microscopic
crevices, thus giving rise to "diffraction." The optical
properties of the Precious Opal have frequently been made
the subject of study by physicists in this country, notably
by Sir David Brewster, Sir William Crookes, and Lord
Rayleigh.

In some varieties the colours are more or less evenly
distributed, and one set of shades will predominate in one
part of the stone, and other colours in another part ; or
the distinct tints will run in parallel bands. In other
specimens the colours are made up of small regular angu-
lar patches of every hue, and these polychromatic stones
are known as Harlequin Opals. Recently I have found a
piece with a luminous ray running down the middle, as in
a cat's eye, and I have therefore called this Cafs-Eye Opal.

The Opal is a non-crystalline mineral. When first
taken out of the earth it is not very hard, but subse-
quently, by exposure to the air, its hardness is increased :
nevertheless, it always remains a soft stone compared with
other gems. Before the blow-pipe the Opal is infusible,
but the water driven off by heat renders it opaque. It

2i 8 The Opal.

has the curious property of improving by the warmth of
the hand, which brings out the brilliant tints for which this
stone is so famed.

HUNGARIAN OPALS.

The Precious Opal, used in jewellery, was formerly
obtained almost exclusively from Hungary. It was called
Oriental Opal by the Greek and Turkish merchants, who
obtained it from the celebrated mines near Czerwenitza,
and then carried it to the East for the purpose of giving
the title Oriental to it, which always conveyed a sense of
goodness and value to stones.

The Hungarian Opal was found in theTokai-Esperieser
mountains, not far from Czerwenitza, the principal mines
being in the Libanka mountain, west of Dubnik. It is
believed that it was from this district that the ancient
Romans obtained their Opal. The matrix of the gem is
an old lava of brown or grey colour, known as andesite.
In the clefts and cavities of this rock, especially in the
decomposed part, the Opal is irregularly distributed as
veins and nests. It is probable that alkaline thermal
waters, from volcanic sources acted upon the rock, decom-
posing some of its silicates and setting free the silica, which
was deposited from the solution in a gelatinous condition
and solidified in the form of Opal.

The opal mountains have been extensively worked by
subterranean galleries of great extent ; the rock being
brought down by blasting, and the shattered fragments then
carefully picked over by hand. Most of the Hungarian
Opal is of the common variety, and specimens displaying
vivid colours fit for jewellery are comparatively rare.

There is, in the Imperial Cabinet of Vienna, an Opal

The Opal 219

from Hungary nearly as large as a man's fist, and weighing
17 ozs. Perhaps the finest Opal of modern times was that
of the Empress Josephine, which was called the " Burning
of Troy," from the numberless red flames blazing on its
surface.

AUSTRALIAN OPALS.

Of late years Precious Opals of singular beauty have
been brought in quantities from Australia. Attention was
first directed to their occurrence in Queensland by Mr. H.
W. Bond, who found them near Cooper's Creek, which runs
into the Barcoo River. Since then several other localities
in Queensland have been found to yield Opal ; some of
the most important deposits being at Fermoy, or Sandy
Creek, situated 125 miles west of Longreach, and 90 miles
from Winton.

The Queensland Opal occurs in veins and pipes in
sandstone, and especially in brown ferruginous nodules.
By probing the soft sandy rock, the hard ironstone concre-
tions are detected ; and on breaking them open, the Opal
is seen as an incrustation on the walls of the cracks. The
opaline layer is usually but thin, and advantage is
sometimes taken of these layers to cut cameos of Opal on
an ironstone matrix.

A few years ago, Mr. G. J. Hooley, in tracking a
wounded kangaroo, in a remote part of New South Wales,
found Opal, and this discovery led to the opening up of the
White Cliffs' field. This locality is situated on the River
Darling, about 50 miles from Wilcannia. The Opal occurs
in Sandstone of Upper Cretaceous age, corresponding to
the Desert Sandstone of Queensland ; it occupies vertical
and horizontal fissures in the rock, yet the actual matrix
of the Opal is not sandstone, but a whitish substance
described variously as kaolin and as marl-stone. It is

22O The Opal.

notable too, that the Opal forms curious pseudomorphs
and sometimes takes the form of shells, belemnites,
reptilian bones and fossil-wood.

Another Opal locality in New South Wales, is at
Rocky Bridge Creek, where the mineral occupies the
cavities in a decomposed vesicular lava, of andesitic type.

It should bs noted that Australia occasionally sends
us Black Opals, which in some cases are very beautiful,
exhibiting variegated colours on a black ground.

Opal is also recorded from New Zealand, but this
locality is of no commercial importance.

MEXICAN AND HONDURAS OPALS.

Opal is found in several localities in the State of
Queretaro, especially at Esperanza, about 10 leagues north-
west of San Juan del Rio. Here the Opal has been
extensively worked in porphyry, and some of the material
from these mines displays a good deal of fire. The
Mexican "fire Opal" is obtained chiefly from the porphyry
of Zimapan.

Opal also occurs in Honduras, in the Department of
Gracias, and in Guatemala. Most of this Central American
Opal is more transparent and less fiery than that from
Hungary, but the conditions of its occurrence seem to be
very similar in the two localities. It occurs in veins run-
ning through rocks of trachyte. The Honduras Opal is apt to
lose its colour, and very little of it comes into the market.

Opal is also recorded from Crooke Co., Oregon.
OPAL.

Composition — Silica, with 10 to 12 per cent, water.
Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2 to 2 '2.

Hardness... ... ... ... 5 -5 to 6.

Form ... ... ... ... Amorphous.

CHAPTER XL

THE TURQUOISE.

NDER the name of Callais or Callainay
Pliny describes a greenish gem-stone, which
has generally been regarded as our modern
Turquoise. This identification, it is true, is
open to some doubt, but it is, nevertheless, the custom of
many mineralogistSj to designate the Turquoise in scientific
language by the name of Callaite. In popular phraseology,
however, the beautiful stone is invariably called Turquoise.

Thomas Nicols, in his " Lapidary," says, " The Tur-
quoise is a hard gem, of no transparency, yet full of beauty :
its colour is sky-blue, out of a green, in which may be
imagined a little milkish infusion. A clear sky, free from
all clouds, will most excellently discover the beauty of a
true Turquoise." Its exquisite colour, which loses nothing
by candle-light, is no doubt owing to the presence of a
certain quantity of phosphate of copper. Those speci-
mens of the Turquoise which retain their colour perpetually,
are said to belong to the " Old Rock," and are very
scarce ; while those that lose their colour, or become green
by exposure, are ascribed to the " New Rock."

The Turquoise does not occur crystallised, but is
found only in a compact form, having no cleavage, but
possessing a conchoidal fracture. It is infusible before
the blow-pipe, but is readily affected by acids. Chemically
it is a phosphate of alumina, in a hydrated condition; and
its composition has been investigated with great care by
Prof. A. H. Church.

222 The Turquoise.

It is doubtful whether the true Turquoise was known
to the Ancients; but in the Middle Ages it was well known
and highly valued, and few stones had such wonderful
gifts and virtues attributed to them as this had. Yet to
realise these advantages it was a necessary condition that
the stone should have been received as a gift. Even to this
day, in Russia, there is a proverb, "That a Turquoise given
by a loving hand carries with it happiness and good
fortune;" and another, "That the colour of a Turquoise
pales when the well-being of the giver is in danger."

The Shah of Persia has long been credited with the
possession of the finest Turquoises in existence, for Nis-
hapur, in Khorassan, the locality from whence the most
precious of these stones is obtained, is within his dominions;
and it was said that the best Turquoise was invariably picked
out and retained by him, whilst the poorer specimens only
were permitted to go into the market.

The Orientals cut texts from the Koran on Turquoise
and fill in the characters with gold. There are some very
good specimens of engraved mineral Turquoise, Nicols
speaks of one possessed by the Duke of Etruria, which
was the size of a hazel-nut, and had the image of Julius
Caesar engraved on it. There are two in the collection of
the Duke of Orleans, on one of which is engraved an image
of Diana, and on the other that of the Empress Faustina.
A jeweller in Moscow at one time possessed a Turquoise
two inches long, cut in the shape of a heart, and said to
have belonged previously to Shah Nadir, who wore it as
an amulet. A verse from the Koran is inscribed upon it
in gold, and £780 was the price asked for it.

Discoveries in the land of Midian have shewn that
three Turquoise mines exist there ; the northernmost, at
Aynuneh already worked, the southernmost, near Ziba

The Turquoise. 223

(still scratched by the Arabs), and the central one, not
known precisely save to the Bedouins, who call it Jebel
Shekayk. But all the stones from these localities soon
lose their colour.

The Arabian Turquoise, though no longer worked, was
highly prized by the ancient Egyptians, who opened Tur-
quoise-mines in the Wady Maghara, in the Desert of Sinai.
We know from existing inscriptions that the copper and
turquoise mines of the Sinaitic Peninsula were taken
possession of by Seneferu, a king who reigned as far back
as the fourth dynasty, at the very beginning of authentic
Egyptian history ; and that these mines were worked to
about the end of the iQth dynasty. The Turquoise occurs
there either in nodules scattered through a base of red
marl, or in veins running through red sandstone. The
mines were visited and described some years ago by Mr.
H. Bauerman.

The late Major MacDonald sent to the Exhibition of
1851 some fine Turquoises which he had obtained from the
red sandstone quarries in the Desert of Arabia. Egyptian
Turquoises, however, are of only small value, because their
colour usually fades when exposed to the light. So it
happened with those exhibited. Harry Emanuel, and
myself purchased one of them for the large sum of
£2,000 ; but the colour soon faded, and most of the money
was lost.

It is known that Turquoise was extensively worked by
the ancient Mexicans previously to the discovery of
America, and it is probable that this was at least one of the
stones known under the name of Chalchihuitl, and noticed
by Bernal Diaz, Torquinado, and others. The Spaniards
found that this "green stone" was highly esteemed for
personal ornaments and for the temples of the gods ; and

224 The Turquoise.

indeed it was relatively more valuable than gold ; an ear-
ring of it being deemed a fair exchange for a mule.

Of late years attention has been directed to the ancient
workings for Turquoise at Los Cerillos, about 24 miles
south-west of Santa Fe, in New Mexico. It is there found
in little veins or nuggets, covered on the exterior with a
white tufaceous crust ; but stones of much commercial
value are comparatively rare, though lately some fine stones
have come to hand. Many tons of the rock may be
crushed without producing a single specimen.

Some of the Mexican Turquoises are of a fine blue
colour, but are often disfigured by white spots which
appear when the stone is polished. Most of these Tui-
quoises, however, incline to green, and, in some specimens
the green colour predominates. The chemical composition'
of the mineral from Los Cerillos has been made the subject
of careful investigation by Prof. F. W. Clarke, the chemist
to the Geological Survey of the United States.

The old excavations at Los Cerillos are of enormous
extent, pits having been dug in the solid rock to a depth
of 200 feet. About two centuries ago a sudden inundation
broke in upon the unfortunate Indians who were working
in the subterranean galleries, and killed about one hundred
of the workmen. So great was the destruction generally
that the enterprise was abandoned. But of late years
workings have been resumed ; and a firm of New York
jewellers working some of the mines has obtained some
very fine stones.

Turquoise of green colour is also found in Cochise
County, Arizona, at a locality known as Turquoise Moun-
tain, which, was worked on a considerable scale by the
ancients. The mineral is likewise known to occur in
Mineral Park, Arizona; and at a few localities in Nevada,

TURQUOISE in the Matrix.

22|

• han gold ; an ear
i mule.

to the ancient
. miles

soutr found

in H

value are comparatr
have come to
crushed v

Sor 'exican Turquoises are of a

color arc often disfigured by white sp<

appear when the stone is polished. Most of these Tui-
quoises, however, incline to green, and, in some specimens
the green colour predominates. The chemical composition
of the mineral from Los Cerillos has been made the subject
ot* careful investigation by Prof. F. W. Clarke, the chemist
to the Geological Survey of tire United States.

The old excavations at Los Cerillos are of eno
extent, pits having been dug in the solid rock to a depth
of 200 feet About two centuries ago a sudden inundation
broke in upon the unfortunate Indians who were working
anean galleries, and killed about one hundred
great was the destruction generally
enterprise was abandoned. But of late years
have been resumed ; and a firm of Nr
king some of the mines has obiair

Turcj " green colour is also found in Cochise

<na, at a locality known as Turo oun-

tain, which, v ked on a considerable s the

ancients. ; likewise km

Mineral !' it a few

TURQUOISE in the Matrix.

The Turquoise. 225

especially in Lincoln Co., at the foot of Sugar Loaf Peak.
California also yields Turquoise, and Dr. G. Eisen has
lately discovered some ancient workings, perhaps Aztec
mines, in a desert region in Southern California.

A few years ago, Turquoise was found in Victoria,
in Australia, the locality being near the Hedi, in the King
River district, where the mineral occurs in veins, running
through old slaty rocks, probably Silurian. This deposit
has been actively worked.

Turquoise has also been discovered in the district of
Bodalla, in New South Wales, but the stone is of no com-
mercial importance.

THE PERSIAN TURQUOISE MINES.

The famous Turquoise mines of Khorassan in Persia
were described officially in 1884, in a report drawn up
for the British Legation at Teheran by General Houtum
Schindler, who had held office as Director of the Mines, and
Governor of the Mining District. The Shah had granted
a concession of the mines for fifteen years to the Mukhbur-
ed-Dowleh, who associated himself with several partners.
Gen. Schindler, after managing the mines for about a year,
found so many difficulties in working under this Company
that he left in May, 1883. For much of the following
information we are indebted to his Report.

The Turquoise mines are situated in the Bar-i-Maden,
a district of the Nishapur province, about 40 miles no'rth-
east of Sabzvar, and 32 miles north-west of Nishapur, in
the north-eastern part of Persia, under latitude 36° 28'
N., longitude 58° 20' E. The mountains of the district
consist of nummulitic limestone and sandstones, resting
on clay-slates, and enclosing great beds of gypsum and
rock-salt. On the north of the Maden valley, the stratified

226 The Turquoise.

rocks are broken through by porphyries and greenstones,
and are consequently much metamorphosed. The Tur-
quoise-bearing ridge, which rises to a height of 6,655 feet>
consists of these eruptive and metamorphosed rocks. The
Turquoises form veins in the strata.

The inhabitants of the Maden-village are entirely
occupied with the mining, cutting and selling of Turquoises.
The gain has made the people careless of anything else,
yet there are very few of the inhabitants who possess much.
A good Turquoise is found, and the money obtained by
its sale is spent at once ; one can often see at the mines
men who yearly pay 60 tomans* to the Government, and
who gain quite 150 tomans besides, having nothing to eat.

The Turquoise mines are of two kinds: (a\ the mines
proper, with shafts and galleries in the rocks ; and (b\ the
Khaki mines or diggings in the detritus of disintegrated
rocks washed down towards the plain.

(a). The mines proper. The most easterly, and ac-
cording to all accounts the oldest mine is M\\z Abdurre7.zdgi
which was formerly called the Abu Ishagi, and is with
that name mentioned in old books. Its mouth is at the
absolute height of 5,900 feet; it is a very extensive mine,
and has a depth of 160 feet vertical from its mouth. For the
last few years, very few Turquoises have been obtained
from this mine, but its Turquoises are esteemed more than
those of other mines. Close to this mine, and in the same
valley, are the Surkh, Shdperddr and Aghdli mines, which
are at present neglected.

A little to the west of the Abdurrezzagi valley, is the
" Derreh-i-Saftd" the White Valley, with the old mines
Mdleki, the upper and lower Zdkt, and the Mirzd Ahmedi.
The former three are immense mines, but almost entirely
filled up with debris.

* The value of the toman was, in 1884, 6s. Set.

The Turquoise. 227

The Turquoises of the " White Valley " though very
good, are not so fine as those of the Abdurrezzagi. Many
Turquoises, generally small, are found in the rubbish of
the old mines ; and are much prized for their colour.

In the lower Zakt, now a vertical shaft of 60 feet in
depth, and about 250 feet in circumference, it may be
plainly seen how the mines have got to their present
ruined state. Vertical shafts were formerly cut into the
rock for lighting and ventilating the mine, while the
entrance of the mine was by lateral galleries driven in on
the slopes of the mountains. Schindler thinks it very
probable that the mines were, as late as the first quarter of
the last century, worked by the Government. When the
Sefavieh dynasty came to an end, the mines were neglected
and left to the people of the village, or perhaps, as now,
farmed to them. The farmers thought of only getting a
quick return for their money, and cut away the rock wher-
ever they saw any Turquoises, exactly as they do at the
present day. As a result the supporting pillars and the
rock between the different shafts were cut away, and the
roof, so to say, of the old mine, fell down, filling it up.
The three above-mentioned mines have been filled up in
a similar manner,

The mouth of the Mtrza Ahmedi mine, which was
probably once a part of the Zaki mines, lies about 80 feet
lower than that of the Zaki mine, and goes down about
80 feet vertical. It also has very good Turquoises, but
working in it is very precarious on account of the bad
state of the galleries, and the amount of loose rubbish
they contain.

The next valley is the Derreh-i-Dar-i-Kilh. In it are
several important mines, the Kerbledi Kerimi, the Dar-i-
Kuh, and others. The Dar-i-Kuk mine is very deep, going

228 The Turquoise.

down about 150 feet vertical. It is an old and very ex-
tensive mine, and some of its galleries continue as far as
Ztiki mine ; it is very dangerous- on account of the rubbish
it contains; the rubbish is badly propped up by stones
and small sticks, and several labourers have been
buried in it. All the mines in the Dar-i-Kiih valley are
worked, and contain good Turquoises.

Further west is the "Derreh-i-Sfyah? the Black Valley,
with the old Alt Mirzai (a contraction of Ali Murteza),
and the Reish mines.

The Ali Mirzai, particularly the lower one of that
name, is very dangerous. The rock which is soft and
much disintegrated, often falls and fills up the mine. A
part of this mine is called the " Bi-rdh-ro" the shaft
"without a road:" to go down into it is very difficult.
The Turquoises of the Ali Mirzai are not good, as their
colour soon fades.

A little to the south of the Ali Mirzd'i mines lies the
Khurtij mine, very extensive, but partly filled up ; it had
some sixty years ago, very good Turquoises, and is at
present not worked.

On the top of the Reish mine, in the same valley, a
vein of Turquoises was discovered a few years ago, and a
new mine was opened there with the name of " Sar-i-Reish"
(the head of the Reish). In it are found Turquoises of fine
colour and great size, but the colour soon fades and the
Turquoise becomes a dirty green, with white and grey
spots. As long as these Turquoises are kept damp they
preserve their colour, but if once they get dry they are
worth very little. A Turquoise as large as a walnut and
of a fine colour was found in this mine in 1882, and was
presented to the Shah ; but, after it had been two days
with His Majesty, it became green and whitish, and was
found to be worth nothing.

The Turquoise. 229

The next valley called the " &efrek-i-Sabz? the green
valley, contains the old Ardelani' and Sabz mines, and the
new Anjiri mines. The Ardeldni was once a very great
mine ; more than twelve old shafts, now filled up, are still
to be seen ; its present entrance is by a large artificial cave
with a dome-like roof; it has a vertical depth of 85 feet,
and is very badly ventilated, having several galleries with
foul air. Such galleries are called " chiragh-kush," i.e.,
lamp extinguishers. The Ardelani Turquoises are not
good. A " Jowaher nameh" (Book on Jewels) written
during the seventeenth century, mentions that Turquoises
of the most inferior quality were obtained from the
Ardelani.

The Sabz mine has, as its name implies, green Tur-
quoises, and is at present filled up.

The Anjiri mines, which have their name from some
fig trees growing in the valley (Anjir— fig), are new mines.
They produced during the last few years a very great
quantity of Turquoises, which had a fine colour, and sold
well. The colour, however, soon faded, and the possessors
of these. Turquoises are now far from satisfied with their
purchases. These stones were sent to Europe and kept
moist in earthenware pots till they were sold ; but when
removed from the damp they lost colour, and in a year or
tvvo became quite white.

The next and last, also the most westerly valley, is
the one with the Keineri mine. This mine, which is full of
water, has some thick veins of Turquoises, but the stones
are of no use for rings, being generally worked into
cheap jewellery.

There are many more mines with names, perhaps
a hundred, and more than a hundred nameless ones, but
they are either parts of those enumerated above, or they

230 The Tiirquoise.

are unimportant. Work in these mines is carried on by
means of picks, and crowbars, and gunpowder. Blasting
with gunpowder has come into vogue only within the last
thirty years: formerly all the work was done by picks, and
much better ; for the picks extracted the Turquoises
entire, while the gunpowder though it does more work,
breaks the stones into small pieces.

(b\ The Khaki mines are diggings in the detritus and
rubbish collected at the foot of the above-mentioned mines,
and in the alluvial-soil, consisting of the detritus of the
rocks, and extending from the foot of the mountain a mile
or two down to the plain. The finest Turquoises are at
present found in the Khaki mines, in fact, good stones for
rings are at present only obtained from the Khaki Work
here is carried on by promiscuous diggings, without any
system whatever. The earth is brought to the surface,
sifted, and searched for Turquoises, generally by children.

The Turquoises are divided at the mines into three
classes, namely : —

1. Angushtari (ring-stones), including all stones of
good and fast colour, and of convenient shape. Deep sky-
blue is the colour most prized. The best stones of this
class are found in the Khaki diggings and .n the Ab'durrez-
zagi mine.

2. BarkanaJi stones, of which four qualities are recog-
nized. Only the best of these are sent to Europe, the rest
being kept in Persia for encrusting ornamental objects.

3. Arabi Turquoises, a name applied to bad stones, of
pale colour or greenish or spotted. The whitish Turquoises
are called SMrbumi or Shirfam. Large flat pieces used
for amulets are known as tfittil.

About 200 men work in the mines and diggings at

The Turquoise, 231

Nishapur, and 25 or 30 elders of the village (Rlsh-l-Sa/tds]
buy the stones of the workmen, and sell them to merchants
and jewellers either at Meshed or at Nishapur itself. The
stones are now generally cut on emery wheels, and
polished first on slabs of fine-grained sandstone and
finally on soft leather with Turquoise dust.

The output of the mines and diggings for recent years
has been about 25,000 tomans (= ,£8,300) worth of Tur-
quoises per annum, as valued at the mines. These mines
were at one time to be let ; but the author, after carefully
enquiring into the matter, found that before any proper
mining work on a large scale could be commenced, it would
be necessary to expend £50,000 or £60,000 in clearing
away the accumulated rubbish. Taking into consideration
the fact that only a few really fine Turquoises are found,
and that the demand for these stones is not large, he failed
to see how after payment of rent and interest on the invested
capital, the enterprise could be undertaken with reasonable
hope of profit.

FOSSIL OR BONE TURQUOISE, &e.

Beside the- true Turquoise described in this chapter,
there are two other substances often sold for this stone.
One of these is Odontolite^ or Fossil Turquoise — the former
name having reference to its origin from tooth, the latter
to the fossil condition in which the structure occurs. The
Odontolite, or bone Turquoise, is, in fact, nothing more
than the tooth, or ivory, or bone of the great extinct
elephant called the Mammoth, whose remains are brought
from Siberia, where they have been mostly preserved by
having been frozen in the ice. This fossil Turquoise de-
rives its blue colour from the phosphate of iron, or

232 The Turquoise.

Vivianite, with which it is impregnated. It is easily
distinguished from the mineral or true Turquoise, by emit-
ting an odour when gently heated. It is, also, softer
and more opaque than true Turquoise. It differs entirely
from the mineral in composition and structure, and it
rarely, if ever, loses its colour. The bony structure may
be detected under the microscope. Abroad the fossil
Turquoise is more esteemed than in England, in conse-
quence of its freedom from outward change, but it is not
so valuable as the Rock Turquoise.

The other mineral often mistaken for Turquoise is
Callainite — a substance which far more closely resembles
the true gem than does the Odontolite. It is, however, of
a lighter colour, and has not the peculiar optical properties
of the Turquoise. The Turquoise has a translucency
peculiarly its own, reflecting light from under its surface ;
it also easily receives a brilliant polish. The Callainite,
on the contrary, is a duller stone, not so vivid nor so fine
in colour.

Beads and other ornamental objects in a greenish
mineral much resembling Turquoise have occasionally
been unearthed from the ancient sepulchral monuments
with which the land of Brittany abounds. About 30 years
ago M. Damour, the eminent French chemist, analysed
some specimens from near Lockmariaker, in the Mor-
bihan, and finding them to be a phosphate of alumina,
of green colour, indentified them with Pliny's Callais, and
suggested a revival of the old name. Dana afterwards
proposed for this substance the modified Plinian name
Callainite, but more recent researches have proved its
identity with the mineral called by Breithaupt Variscite.

Some interesting discoveries of Variscite, in the form

The Turquoise.

233

of nodules, have lately been made in Utah, and polished
specimens form pretty ornamental stones of a greenish
colour.

TRUE TURQUOISE.
Chemical Composition —

Phosphorus pentoxide
Alumina

Water

Copper oxide

Iron and manganese oxides...

32-8.

40*2.
19-2.

5'3
2-5.

I OO'O.

Hardness ...
Specific Gravity
Form

275
Amorphous

SECTION IV.

SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES.

Of less commercial value than those described in the fore-
going pages, but nevertheless many of them very beautiful.

>T is deemed advisable to arrange this large
series of Stones in alphabetical order, without
expressing any opinion as to their relative

values. Many of these Stones were formerly much worn,

but at present there is only a slight demand for them.

In my opinion however, some of them, especially the

Amethyst, will again become fashionable.

The coloured plates represent several of these stones,

shewing their crystalline form, which it is hoped may serve

as a guide to those who are interested in the study of

gemsi

i. CRYSTAL OF AQUAMARINE
3. CRYSTAL OF AMETHYST.
5. CRYSTAL OF TOURMALINE.

2. CRYSTAL OF QUARTZ.
4. CRYSTAL OF GARNET.
6. CRYSTAL OF PERIDOT.

CHAPTER I.

THE AGATE.

[Y the term Agate, the mineralogist understands a
composite substance, an association of certain sil-
iceous or quartz-like minerals, which in texture,
colour, and transparency are diverse one from another.
These Agate-forming minerals are chiefly Chalcedony,
Carnelian5 Jasper and Quartz. Two or more of thesp,
forming a variegated stone, and usually presenting a
diversity of spots and stripes, may be denominated an
Agate. The name is derived from the river Achates, in
Sicily, now known as the Drillo, in the Val de Noto,
wherein, according to Theophrastus, the ancient Agates
were found, in his time.

The Agate is occasionally found in veins, as in certain
localities in Saxony and Bohemia, but, as a rule, it occurs
in the form of nodules embedded in an amygdaloidal rock,
more or less akin to basalt.

On the decomposition of the amygdaloida) agate-
bearing rock, the enclosed Agates, by reason of their
resistance to the disintegrating effects of weather, remain
behind as nodules ; hence Agates are frequently found
loose in the beds of rivers. The " Scotch pebbles "are
Agates which have been liberated by decomposition of
their matrix of porphyrite, and are found scattered over
the surface of the ground.

236 The Agate.

Various theories have been propounded from time to
time, for the purpose of explaining the origin of the Agate
nodules in the cavities of the rocks wherein they occur.
The cavities themselves have unquestionably resulted from
the imprisonment of gas bubbles, whilst the rock was in a
molten condition. The agate-bearing rock is, in most
cases, an ancient lava. The nodules of Agate are con-
sidered to result from the crystallization, or non-crystalline
deposition, of silica, from a solution with which the cavity
of the nodule or geode became filled. The silica — now in
one condition, such as Jasper, now in another, such as
Chalcedony, and then again in the crystallized form of
Quartz — was deposited over the irregular inner surface,
giving rise to those concentric markings which are seen on
the sections of most Agates. This deposition of silica
would continue until the geode became filled so as to form a
solid Agate, or the inlets of infiltration became stopped up,
or the supply of siliceous solution failed. In other cases
the silica would be deposited on the walls of the cavity in
concentric layers, while, after a time, owing to some change
in the natural conditions, the silica might be deposited in
layers on the floor of the cavity, in obedience to gravita-
tion, and the various coloured bands would then run
parallel to each other in horizontal layers.

According to certain fancied similitudes, which the
Agate stone displays to things in common use, it receives
distinguishing names. Thus Riband Agate exhibits strata
or layers of different colours which play one into the other.
If the stripes of varied hues are arranged round the centre,
it receives the name of Circular Agate ; and if in this
centre there are other coloured points, it is called Eye Agate.
When the variously coloured bands are disposed in an
angular pattern, suggestive of the plan of a polygonal

The Agate. 237

fortress, it is called Fortification Agate. Moss Agates
enclose green and brown mineral matter suggestive of
vegetable growth, whilst Mocha Stones contain dendritic or
branching markings of brown colour, due to oxide of
manganese and perhaps iron.

In speaking of Oriental and Occidental Agate, we
conventionally understand that all the most beautiful and
translucent sorts belong to the Oriental, and the less
valuable to the western variety.

Although very fine Agates are found in India, our
supply is derived in large part from South America, though
many other parts of the world also yield these stones. In
the bed of the Rio Pardo, the Taquarie, and other rivers
in Uruguay, Agate nodules are found in considerable
quantities and often of large size. These are generally
known as " Brazilian Agates," and are largely exported to
the polishing mills of Germany. These mills, which are
mostly carried on in the most primitive manner, are situated
mainly in the neighbourhood of Oberstein, on the Nahe,
a tributary to the Rhine at Bingen. The location of the
Agate industry in this district was originally determined
by the occurrence of Agates in the melaphyre rocks of
the Galgenberg, where they were worked more than four
centuries ago. The quarries, or rather mines — for the
Agate rock was worked in subterranean tunnels — have
been abandoned since the discovery of the Agate in
Uruguay; but the work of cutting and polishing the stone
is still carried on largely in the neighbouring villages.

In a district of 8J square miles, stand the two little
towns of Oberstein and Idar, the chief centres of the Agate
industry. Not only is a great proportion of the inhabi-
tants of these towns in some way occupied in cutting,
polishing, and colouring these stones, but for miles round

238 The Agate.

every valley is dotted with the homes of those who follow
this business. Agate polishing has also been carried on of
late years at Waldkirch in Baden.

In 1770 there were only 26 cutting and polishing mills
in Birkenfield, whereas in 1870 there were 180. In each
mill there are four or five grindstones. These are of red
sandstone, obtained from Zweibriicken ; and two men
ordinarily work together at the same stone. The Agate is
usually cleaved to the requisite form by means of the
hammer, a work which exacts much skill from the artisan:
for he must be well acquainted with, the natural grain of
the Agate, since there is no true cleavage to guide him.

One of the most interesting branches of the Agate
industry is that of colouring the stones by artificial means.
This subject has already been dealt with on pp. 48 — 51.

In the amygdaloidal rocks of Perthshire, Forfarshire,
and other parts of Scotland, Agates of very pleasing
patterns are found. These are cut and polished under the
name of "Scotch Pebbles," and are employed as ornamental
stones in common jewellery.

AGATE.

Chemical Composition ... ... Silica.

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7.

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2*6.

Form ... ... Amorphous, and nodular.

CHAPTER II.

AMAZON ITE.

BEAUTIFUL green mineral is occasionally
used as an ornamental stone under the name
of Amazonite or Amazon Stone. Formerly it
was nearly all derived from Siberia, but in
recent years magnificent examples have been found at
Pike's Peak, Colorado ; while it has also been discovered
in Scotland.

Amazon-stone is a bluish-green felspar, formerly
regarded as a variety of orthoclase, but placed by the late
M. Descloizeaux, on account of its optical behaviour, with
microcline. Its colour has been referred to the presence of
oxide of copper, but according to Konig, it is due to an
organic compound of iron.

AMAZONITE.

Composition — Silica ... ... ... 65.

Alumina ... ... ... 18.

Potash ... ... ... 13.

Soda, &c ... 4.

100.

Hardness ... ... ... ... 6'o.

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2*5.

Crystalline System ... Triclinic.

Form ... ... Various prismatic combinations.

CHAPTER III.

AMBER.

MBER is a fossil resin, and its external condition,
as well as its chemical composition, points to
its vegetable origin. This view is strengthened
by its frequent occurrence in connection with
brown coal or lignite.

If further -proof were wanted of the vegetable origin
of Amber, it exists in the inclusion of insects, leaves, pieces
of wood, moss, seeds, and little stones, all of which may be
seen in that which is found on the coast of the Baltic, or in
Burma. The condition of these inclusions proves the liquid
character of the resinous matter as it flowed forth and
involved the insects ; and it shews, also, the subsequent
slow progress of the solidification which ensued. The
most delicate parts of the creature are often preserved in
their natural positions — probably because the Amber, when
it originally exuded from the tree, was a liquid of thin
consistency.

The innumerable organic remains, which this resin has
preserved uninjured for ages, give us a marvellous insight
into the vegetable life of that division of the Tertiary period
known to the geologists as the Oligocene age — the age to
which the Amber forests of northern Europe may be referred.
We here see plants quite unknown at the present day in
the flora of the northern sea-coasts, but which have a re-
lationship to the existing flora of the shores of the
Mediterranean. The late Prof. Goeppert, of Breslau,
christened the principal Amber-yielding tree the Piniles
succinifer.

Amber. 241

Amber is non-crystalline, translucent, and somewhat
brittle ; it has a specific gravity as nearly as possible the
same as that of sea-water. Its fundamental colour is
yellow in all shades, running on one side into white and
hyacinth red, and on the other into brown and black.
The green and blue specimens are never pure.

It becomes electrical by friction, and this property
was familiar to the Greeks as far back as the days of
Thales of Miletus, who observed that when rubbed it
acquired the property of attracting light substances. The
word Electricity is, in fact, derived from the Greek word
electron, signifying Amber.

Chemically, Amber is composed of a volatile oil,
several resins, and succintc acid. The principal resin of
Amber is known as Succinite — a name often applied by
mineralogists to Amber itself. The Sicilian Amber, of
rather different composition, is termed Simetite, after the
River Simeto where it is found.

Wherever Amber is found, whether in France, Holland,
Sweden, Italy, Sicily, Spain, Siberia, China or India, it is
in association with brown-coal or lignite. The most pro-
lific fields of Amber are the great plains of northern
Germany, and the coasts of the Baltic, especially between
Konigsberg and Memel, where it occurs in a loose clayey
sandstone, which, from its colour, is known as "blue earth."
At Palmicken, in Samland, in eastern Prussia, the Amber
is systematically worked by subterranean mining ; but in
most places the Amber gatherers simply dig it from the
soil, or pick it from the cliffs, or collect the nodules that
are cast by the waves upon the shore.

Specimens of Amber, in the form of rolled nodules,
are occasionally found washed ashore in this country,
especially on the coast of Norfolk, near Cromer.

2 42 A mber.

Large quantities of Prussian Amber are sent to
Breslau, Odessa, and Constantinople. Amber forms an
important industry not only in Dantzic, Konigsberg, Stolpe,
and Liibeck, but in Vienna, Constantinople, and Catania,
in Sicily. It is notable that the Sicilian Amber possesses
a peculiar opalescence, or even fluorescence — presenting a
difference of tint according as it is viewed by transmitted
or by reflected light.

Necklaces and bracelets of Amber are sent to Egypt
and India, and the meanest Turk seeks a piece of it for
his pipe, not only because it is pleasant to the lip, but
because he has a belief that it will preserve him from
inhaling pestilence.

Amber is very fashionable for cigarette cases, match
and stamp boxes, and other objects set with gems, which
make extremely beautiful presents. It is almost impossible
to obtain pieces of Amber large enough for ladies' card-
cases or gentlemen's cigar cases.

Amber was much valued by the Ancients, and we
find it mentioned as early as the time of Ezekiel (Ez, c. i.,
v. 4). It was particularly prized by the Romans. From
the second Imperial epoch down to the middle of the
fourteenth century, Amber was cut into knives and one-
pronged forks, which the princes and great church
dignitaries used for cutting up various kinds of fruits and
vegetables, especially their esculent fungoids — mushrooms,
and the like. It was, and still is, more valuable than gold.
The Greeks very early received from the Phoenicians chains
made of Amber, both for the neck and arms, and it is
mentioned in connection with heathen mythology from
very ancient times.

According to the legend, the sisters of Phaeton,
mourning and weeping at his unhappy end, attracted the

Amber. 243

pity of the gods, who mercifully changed them into trees,
and their tears still flowing on, became Amber. A yet
stranger origin is given to this fossil, in the well-known
couplet of the fire-worshippers — " Around thee shall glisten
the loveliest Amber, that ever the sorrowing sea bird hath
wept."

The great value set upon Amber, even in pre-historic
times, is seen in the care with which objects of this material
were interred with their possessors in tumuli or burial-
mounds of very early date. The finest archaic specimen
in this country is an Amber cup in the Brighton Museum,
originally found with bronze and stone weapons in a
barrow at Hove.

AMBER.

Composition ... Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

Specific Gravity ... ... . . i '08.

Hardness ... ... ... ... 2*5.

Form Amorphous; occurring as nodules.

CHAPTER IV.

AMETHYST.

HIS term is now applied to all the violet
and purple crystals of Quartz, which, when
fractured, present the peculiar rippled or un-
dulated structure described by Sir David
Brewster. The stone called Oriental Amethyst, is strictly
a variety of Sapphire, of violet colour, but the term is
applied commercially to any Amethyst of exceptional
beauty.

Amethyst is a variety of Quartz said to contain traces
of oxide of manganese, to which the violet colour is com-
monly attributed. When heated, however, it becomes
yellow or white, and may acquire opalesence. The crys-
tals, like those of quartz in any other of its manifold
varieties, are of sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and
are infusible before the blow-pipe.

The Amethyst is dichroic, or exhibits under certain
conditions two distinct tints — the one being reddish purple
and the other bluish purple.

Amethysts are usually found in association with
Agates. Brazil, Uruguay, and Siberia furnish us with the
best specimens of the dark coloured stones. The common
Amethyst is found in nearly all parts of the world, but is
of very little value.

To show the fall in the value of this stone, we may
refer to the Amethyst necklace of Queen Charlotte; which
was supplied by my predecessors, Messrs. Emanuel Bros.,
of Bevis Marks. It consisted of well-matched and very

Amethyst. 245

perfect stones, although only of the common variety, and
was valued at £2,000 ; but it is doubtful whether, apart
from its historical associations, it would now realise £100.
I think, however, that the Amethyst will again come into
favour, and probably the Americans may be the means of
reviving its popularity, just as they have made Opals
fashionable.

Cameos and intaglios of very ancient date, and in every
style are met with in Amethysts. As a rule, stones of a pale
colour are used for engraving rather than the dark ; yet the
late Rev. C. W. King says he has seen perhaps the grandest
Greek portrait in existence, a head of Mithridates, cut in a
large Amethyst of the deepest violet colour, which was
found a century ago in India. There was another very
ancient intaglio of the head of Pan in the Uzielli collection.
One of the largest Amethyst cameos was the gem, repre-
senting a bust of Trajan, taken from the Prussian treasury
during the Napoleonic wars.

It may be added that the word " Amethyst," though
probably of Oriental origin, is usually regarded as derived
from the Greek privative a and the verb methuo, " to
intoxicate " — whence the old notion that this stone was
an antidote to drink, a charm against intoxication.

AMETHYST.

Composition : —

Silica, coloured probably by oxide of manganese.
Specific Gravity ... ... .. 2 '6

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7-

System of Crystallization Hexagonal.

Form of Crystals Generally

six-sided pyramids and prisms.

CHAPTER V.

ANDALUSITE.

HIS mineral, which was named from its occur-
rence in the province of Andalusia, in Spain,
is occasionally found in Brazil in clear crystals
admitting of being cut as an ornamental stone,
Andalusite is, however, a very rare gem-stone. It is
remarkable for displaying marked pleochroism. Some of
the green crystals shew in the dichroiscope green and
yellow images, whilst the brown crystals give a reddish
brown and greenish yellow. A remarkably fine specimen
of rich colour and great brilliancy, weighing i/J carats,
was recently in the author's possession. Although a
beautiful stone its hardness is only slightly above that
of quartz.

ANDALUSITE.

Chemical Composition ; —

Silica ... ... ... 36*9

Alumina ... ... 63*1

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3-1

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7 to 7*5

Crystalline System Orthorhombic.

Form Prismatic Crystals.

CHAPTER VI.

AQUAMARINE, OR BERYL.

QUA MARINE is a name given to the varieties
of Beryl which possess a pale green colour
suggestive of sea-water, whence the name
aqua marina. In fact, the Beryl, the Aquamarine, and the
Emerald — though differing much in value as gem-stones —
are all united by mineralogists under the head of a single
species, inasmuch as they are found to agree in crystallo-
graphic and chemical characters, while they differ mainly
in colour. The pale green of the Aquamarine is probably
due to the presence of a small proportion of oxide of iron,
whereas the rich green of the Emerald appears referable
to oxide of chromium

Aquamarine comes to us from Brazil ; and it is also
found in the Ural Mountains, the Altai Mountains, in
Siberia, Australia, and other parts of the world.

Aquamarine is made into a variety of ornaments. It
is said that the Emperor Commodus possessed an Aqua-
marine engraved with a portrait of Hercules by Hyllus ;
and that in the treasures of Odescalchi, there was a stone
engraved by Quintilius. representing Neptune, drawn by
sea-horses, In the National Library in Paris there is a
beautiful engraving by Evodus, on Aquamarine, of the
head of Julia, the daughter of Titus. An Aquamarine, 2T*
inches long and 2| in thickness, adorned the tiara of Pope
Julius II.

One of the finest known specimens of Aquamarine is
the remarkable sword-hilt which was in the collection of

248

Aquamarine, or Beryl.

the late Mr. Beresford Hope, exhibited for some years in
the South Kensington Museum. It is covered with facets,
and is unique both as a mineral and as an example of the
lapidary's art This stone, which is said to have belonged
to Prince Murat, weighs 3^ ozs. There were also in Mr.
Hope's collection some fine engraved Beryls.

AQUAMARINE.

Composition — Silica ...
Alumina
Glucina

Specific Gravity

Hardness

System of Crystallization

Forms of Crystals

66-8
19-1
14-1

lOO'O

27
7-5

Hexagonal.
Six-sided prisms.

CHAPTER VII.

AVANTURINE.

»T is related that a French glass maker, hap-
pening to let some brass filings fall into his
glass-pot, was surprised to find that the pro-
duct presented a beautifully-spangled appearance. To
this gold-spotted glass the name of Avanturine was given,
because it had thus been formed par aventure — "by
accident." The name was afterwards applied to a mineral
which presents an appearance somewhat like that of the
avanturine glass

This mineral, though rare, is nothing more than a
translucent variety of Quartz, generally of brownish-red
but sometimes of green colour, and having disseminated
throughout its mass a vast number of glittering points
which appear generally to be minute scales of Mica. It
is used to a limited extent as an ornamental stone.

AVANTURINE.

Composition — Silica, with oxide of iron, alumina,

and other impurities.
Specific Gravity ... ... ... ... 26

Hardness ... ... ... ... ... 7'

Form Massive and schistose.

CHAPTER VIII.

BLOODSTONE.

LOODSTONE, or Heliotrope, is a variety of
Chalcedony, of a deep green colour, inter-
spersed with red spots of Jasper, which
resemble small drops of blood, whence its name.

Although a beautiful mineral, it is not much used for
ornamental purposes, except for signet rings. Being a
rather hard stone, yet not difficult of manipulation, it is a
favourite with engravers, and hence crests and monograms
are frequently engraved upon it. Cups, boxes and other
ornamental objects of small size, are also fashioned from
it. It was much prized by the ancient Egyptians and
Babylonians, who employed it for seals, intaglios, &c.

In the Royal Collection in Paris is a bust of our Lord
Jesus Christ in Bloodstone, so executed that the red spots
of the stone stand out like real drops of blood.

BLOODSTONE.

Composition — Silica, with a small percentage of

peroxide of iron.

Specific Gravity ... ... ... ... 2*6

Hardness ... ... ... ... ... 7

Form ... ... ... ... Amorphous.

CHAPTER IX.

CARNELIAN.

ARNELIAN is nothing more than a pale-red
variety of Chalcedony -, itself a form of Quartz,
characterized by its translucency, or semi-
opacity, and by an absence of distinct crystalline texture.
The word Carnelian is said to be derived from the Latin
word Caro, " flesh," in allusion to the reddish colour
of the stone. As to the word Chalcedony, some believe it
to be derived from Chalcedon^ now Kadi-Kene, an ancient
city in Bithynia, the place where it was earliest found. The
Ancients called the Carnelian Sarda, either from the town
of Sardis in Asia Minor, or from the Arabian word " Sard "
(yellow].

Carnelian is chiefly found in nodular masses, and in
the interior of Agates. Its colour varies from blood-red to
wax-yellow, and reddish-brown ; it is cloudy, seldom
striated, semi-transparent, and of waxy lustre. By heat
the colour of Carnelian becomes intensified, because its
colouring matter, which is a hydrated oxide of iron, or
ferric hydrate, becomes dehydrated, or loses more or less
of its water, and is thus reduced partially or completely to
the state of anhydrous oxide of iron, or ferric oxide, the
colour of which is bright red. By an over application of
heat it sometimes loses its colour and becomes white, pale,
and friable.

Carnelian of a light ruby colour is of more value than
the other varieties of Chalcedony ; the pale-red ranks next.

252 Camelian.

At Oberstein and Idar ordinary pale-grey Chalcedony is
coloured red by chemical means, and thus converted into
a brightly tinted Carnelian.

This stone appears to have been chosen by the Greeks
and Romans for cameos and intaglios in consequence of its
possessing a beautiful colour and a certain hardness,
affording a facility for manipulation. The oldest Greek
gems known are in the collection of the Emperor of
Germany. One of them is a Carnelian, on which is
represented a winged Jupiter appearing to Semele ; and
the other an opaque Sardonyx, on which is engraved a
draped figure of Venus. There is a Carnelian of the
earliest period in the St. Petersburgh collection, on which
a man's head is engraved, with most artistically arranged
beard. The British Museum possesses an example of the
second period, viz., a Carnelian butterfly, carrying a
representation of Venus, of very fine workmanship.

A Carnelian of the third period is in the Royal
Collection of Vienna, and represents Helena. On a small
Carnelian, in the Collection at Florence, there is a head of
Apollo, adorned with laurels and fillets. In the Berlin
Museum there is an unique Indian Carnelian, almost as
transparent as the Hyacinth, engraved with the head of
Sextus Pompeius. One of the most famous of the ancient
deep-cut stones represents the birthday festival of Dionysius,
and was once, it is said, possessed by Michael Angelo.

CARNELIAN.

Composition— Silica, with oxide of iron.
Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2 '6

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7

Form ... ... ... Amorphous.

CHAPTER X.

CHRYSOBERYL.
THE ORIENTAL CHRYSOLITE OF LAPIDARIES.

HERE is probably no stone the composition
of which has been given with so much varia-
tion as this. There is, however, reason to
believe that chemists have frequently analysed different
stones, and confounded them under one term. The true
Chrysoberyl, as known to us to-day, is essentially a com-
pound of alumina and glucina, with varying proportions of
oxide of iron. There are three varieties of this stone — the
Chrysoberyl) the Cymophane or true Oriental Cat's Eye, and
the Alexandrite. The colours of the Chrysoberyl range
from light asparagus green, golden yellow, brownish yellow,
and golden brown, to columbine red.

The crystalline forms of the Chrysoberyl belong to
the rhombic system. It is usually found as rolled pebbles
in the same sands as those which furnish crystals of Topaz
and Corundum. Crystals of great beauty are found in the
Emerald mines of Takowaia, east of the Catherine Moun-
tains in the Ural. It is brittle, transparent, or translucent,
and possesses in a high degree the power of double
refraction, and a vitreous and oily lustre. A peculiar
bluish opalesence, in the inner part of the stone, is some-
times seen.

It is interesting to trace the history of our knowledge
of the chemical constitution of Chrysoberyl. Klaproth

254 Chrysoberyl.

and Arfwedson considered it to be composed of silicic
acid and alumina. To Seybert we are indebted for the
discovery of glucina in it. He believed it was composed
of silicic acid, alumina, and an aluminate of glucinum or
beryllium. Thomson declared that he could find no silicic
acid in it, and was confirmed in this view by Rose.

Asparagus or yellow-green Chrysoberyl was known
in very early times to the people of Ceylon and Brazil.
In Ceylon it is found in river sands in company with
Tourmaline, Spinel, and Sapphire. In Borneo, and in
Burma, it is found amongst pebbles and loose alluvia. In
Brazil, pieces of the Chrysoberyl of the size of a hazel nut,
and of yellowish-green colour, are sometimes met with
while washing for Diamonds. Of late years it has also
been found in granite in Connecticut, North America, in
well-formed tables and prisms, with Tourmaline, Garnet,
and Beryl ; and at Saratoga and Greenfield in New York
State, in regular twin crystals with Tourmaline, Garnet,
and Apatite,

CHRYSOBERYL.

Composition — Alumina ... 78

Glucina ... 18

Ferrous oxide ... 4

100

Specific Gravity 3 '5 to 3-8

Hardness ... ... ... 8'5

Crystalline System Trimetric or ortho-rhombic.

Form Flat prisms ; generally as rolled pebbles.

CHAPTER XI.

CHRYSOPRASE.

HE Chrysoprase is mentioned in the book of
Ezekiel (c. xxvii., v. 16), and it is also referred
to as one of the stones in the wall of the Holy
City (Rev., c. xxi., v. 20). It has been said,
however, that the Chrysoprase of the Ancients was a very
different stone from that which is known by this name at
the present day. Pliny speaks of it as a well-known gem,
and tells us that vessels were made of it, and that the stone
was obtained from India in great quantities. No antique
works in true Chrysoprase have come down to us. The
costly mosaic walls of St. Wenzel's Chapel, in the Cathedral
of St. Beit at Prague, built in the I4th century, contain
splendid specimens of Chrysoprase.

Our Chrysoprase is a green variety of Chalcedony, of
extremely local occurrence. It is found in Silesia, near
Kosemiitz, Glasendorf, and Baumgarten, not far from
Frankenstein. It occurs in veins of serpentine, in company
with other siliceous minerals, such as Quartz, Chalcedony,
and Opal.

Among the semi-Precious Stones, the Chrysoprase
deserves to be one of the greatest favourites. It possesses
a beautiful apple-green colour of many shades, and a
transparency and capability of high polish, together with
the advantage of being found in large pieces. Exposure to
sunlight, however, renders it liable to fade slightly. It was
the chemist, Klaproth,who discovered the presence of nickel,

256 Chrysoprase.

and that the stone contained a small quantity of water.
The nickel oxide is therefore, probably united with water,
as hydrate, in the Chrysoprase, and if by the influence of
heat, some of the water in the stone is lost, the beauty of
the colour may be more or less destroyed.

At Oberstein a green colour is imparted to ordinary
Chalcedony, by means of salts of nickel or of chromic acid
so as to produce an artificially tinted Chrysoprase.

CHRYSOPRASE.

Composition — Silica ... ... ... 97*5

Oxide of Nickel, &c. ... 2-5

1000

Specific Gravity ... ... ... ... 2-6

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7

Form ... ... ... ... Amorphous

CHAPTER XII.

CROCIDOLITE.

JTHIN the last quarter of a century a great
deal of this mineral has been brought from
South Africa, and introduced into commerce
as Cat's Eye ; but whilst the true Oriental Cat's
Eye is a valuable and beautiful gem, this stone is compar-
atively worthless for jewellery. It is, in fact, mainly a ferru-
ginous Quartz, or Chalcedony, associated with a fibrous
mineral known as true Crocidolite, or a pseudomorph
after it.

Crocidolite is a mineral belonging to the group of
Hornblendes, and consists of thin delicate silken fibres
compacted together in masses, and often associated with
magnetite or magnetic oxide of iron.

When Crocidolite is cut en cabochon, it exhibits, in
some degree, the Cat's Eye effect ; it being an optical
property of all acicular or fibrous minerals, when cut with
a curved surface, to show more or less chatoyancy on a
line at right angles to the fibres of the substance.

The colours of the Crocidolite are usually some shade
of yellow, with a ray of a lighter colour ; or rich brown
deepening to almost black ; or a dark indigo with a zone
of lighter blue. The brown variety is known as Tiger's
Eye and the blue as Hawk's Eye.

The so-called Crocidolite Cat's Eye comes principally
from a locality on the Orange River in Griqualand West,

258 Crocidolite.

but is also found in other parts of South Africa. It has
been regarded as mainly a pseudomorph of quartz or
chalcedony after true Crocidolite — in other words, the
original material has been converted into a quartzose
substance while retaining its fibrous form. It seems,
however, that some at least of the so-called Crocidolite
used as an ornamental stone is a mixture of Crocidolite
and Chalcedony, with much oxide of iron. The mineral
has been studied microscopically and chemically by
Fischer, Wibel, Renard, Klement and others.

CROCIDOLITE.
Chemical Composition : —

Silica 51

Oxide of Iron... ... 34

Soda . ... 7

Magnesia ... ... 3

Water 5

100.

Specimens vary very much in composi-
tion, and some of the South African
mineral is mainly Chalcedony.

Specific Gravity ... About 3.

Hardness ... ... Nearly 7.

Form Fibrous masses in veins.

CHAPTER XIII.

EUCLASE.

HIS mineral has occasionally been cut and
polished as a gem-stone, but rather as a mat-
ter of scientific curiosity, than with a view to
its introduction into jewellery. It is, in fact, a
rare mineral, occasionally found with Topaz at Villa Rica,
in Brazil. It is also known to occur with Beryl, on the
River Sanarka, in the Urals.

Euclase is always found in crystals which exhibit
perfect cleavage, and perhaps the most curious feature of
the stone is its excessive brittleness — whence, indeed, the
name "Euclase," from eu and klao. Its colour is generally
a pale straw, passing in some specimens into blue and
green. The mineral is trichroic, and possesses considerable
lustre. In its chemical relations it stands closely related
to the Emerald.

EUCLASE.

Chemical Composition :

Silica ... ... ... 41*20

Alumina 35'22

Glucina ... ... ... 17*39

Water 6-19

1 00 00

Specific Gravity ... ... 3

Hardness ... ... ... 7*5

Crystalline Fotm ... ... Tnmetric.

Form ... ... ... Prismatic crystals.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE GARNET, CARBUNCLE, AND CINNAMON STONE.

NDER the general name of Garnet, the min-
eralogist includes a number of stones which
present a great variety of colour, ranging from
the lightest cinnamon, through all shades of
red and crimson, and even to various tints of green. Be-
tween these diverse minerals the chief bonds of association
are to be found in their crystallographic relations, and
their constancy of chemical type. On glancing at the
various analyses of different Garnets, one might fail to
recognize their relationship ; but the chemist is aware that
these changes of composition take place according to cer-
tain definite laws, without violating the general type on
which they are constructed. Their specific gravity, and
even their hardness, are subject to great variations, corres-
ponding to their differences of composition. They all
belong to the isometric or cubic system, and are conse-
quently monochroic.

The Garnet was a great favourite with the Ancients,
and antique Garnets have often been found in Roman
ruins. In former days it was very frequently engraved,
and beautiful specimens are now to be seen in Paris, Turin,
Rome, and St. Petersburg. The small degree of hardness
possessed by this stone renders engraving on it compara-
tively easy.

The word Garnet probably owes its origin to the
similarity of the colour of this stone to that of the blossom

The Garnet^ Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. 261

and kernel of the pomegranate, a fruit of Southern Europe.
It is not a name of ancient date. Pliny calls it " Car-
bunculus," from Carbo, a live coal. According to some
authorities, however, it is thought that the origin of the
word Garnet is to be found in Granum, " a grain," because
it is so often found in granular forms. The Precious
Garnet is sometimes called " Almandine," from the city of
Alabanda, in Caria. Its colour is blood-red, cherry-red, or
brownish-red : by candle-light it assumes a violet tint.

Garnet is almost world-wide in its distribution.

A new variety of Garnet, closely resembling the
Burmese Ruby in colour, was found a few years ago under
very difficult circumstances, in the interior of New Mexico.
Lapidaries were at first unable to determine, by mere cutting,
the nature of this stone. A specimen was accordingly
sent to Sir W. Crookes, F.R.S., who, by analysis found that
it contained as much as 42 per cent, of Alumina.

Fine Garnets have been found abundantly in the
MacDonnel Ranges in the interior of South Australia, and
have been sometimes termed " Australian Rubies.''

The principal varieties recognised by mineralogists are
the Almandine, or Precious Garnet ; the Essonite, or
" Jacinth " and " Hyacinth ;" the Pyropey or Bohemian
blood-red Garnet, the Uwarowite, or chrome Garnet and
the Demantoid, or green Garnet. Each of these will now
be separately described.

ALMANDINE (Carbuncle),

The Almandine is a beautiful stone of rich claret
colour, and is the most esteemed of the whole family of
Garnets, It is the stone which is generally employed for
Carbuncles. The difference between a Carbuncle and a

262 The Garnet, Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone.

Garnet is simply that the former is cut en cabochon, whilst
the latter is generally cut with a table and facets.

Almandine Garnet is occasionally found to be asteri
ated, but such specimens are rare.

ALMANDINE (Carbuncle),

Chemical Composition : —

Silica 36-5

Alumina ... ... ... 21*0

Iron protoxide ... ... 34*5

Magnesia ... ... ... 4*0

Lime ... ... ... ... 30

Manganese protoxide ... ro

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3 '5 to 4. 3

Hardness ... ... ... ... about 7

Crystalline System ... ... ... Cubic.

Forms ... Rhombic dodecahedron and 24-faced
trapezohedron.

PYROPE,

The Pyrope, sometimes known as " Bohemian Garnet,"
is of a blood-red colour, never purple. When cut like a
brilliant it is very bright, but owing to its occurring in
small pieces, it is more usually rose-cut and mounted en
pave". It is found principally in Saxony and Bohemia,
where it occurs embedded in Serpentine. By the gradual
decomposition of this matrix, the Garnets are set free
and being carried down by streams, are found in the sands
of the rivers, where they are collected by children. Fine

The Garnet^ Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. 263

Pyropes occur with the Diamonds of South Africa, and are
unfortunately termed "Cape Rubies;" but some of these
may be Almandine.

PYROPE.

Chemical Composition : —

Silica ... ... ... ... 41-5

Alumina ... ,.. ... 22*0

Magnesia ... ... ;.. 15*0

Iron protoxide ... ... 9-5

Lime ... ... ... ... 5-0

Chromium sesquioxide ... 4*5

Manganese protoxide ... 2*5

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... 3-7 to 3-8

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7-5

Crystalline System ... ... ... Cubic.

Forms... Same as those of Almandine.

SSSONITE.

This stone, which comes principally from Ceylon,
passes under three names according to its colour. The
lightest of the three is of a pale cinnamon colour, and is
hence known as Cinnamon Stone. The next is a little
darker, with a peculiar admixture of red and orange, and
is known to jewellers as Jacinth. The last has a darker
shade of bright red, orange and brown, giving rise to the
peculiar hyacinthine tint, and it is therefore called in trade
a Hyacinth. It is a common error to confound these hya-
cinthine Garnets with Zircons of similar colour, to which
the names Jacinth and Hyacinth are also applied.

264 The Garnet, Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone.

A Garnet resembling Essonite in composition, but
of green colour, is known as Grossularia, or " Gooseberry
Stone." It is found chiefly in Siberia.

ESSONITE.
Chemical Composition : —

Silica ... ... ... ... 40

Alumina ... ... ... 23

Lime ... ... ... ... 32

Iron protoxide, &c. ... .. 5

100

Specific Gravity ... 3^4 to 37

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7

System ... ... ... ... Cubic.

Forms Same as those of Almandine.

UWAROW1TE and DEMANTOID.

Of the many other varieties of Garnet, more or less
rare, occurring in a state of perfection fit for jewellery pur-
poses, mention may be made of the mineral called
Uwarowite. It presents a fine Emerald-green colour, and
when sufficiently clear and large forms a beautiful and
lasting stone. It is very little used in jewellery, and is
often confounded with the " Green-Garnet " (Demantoid)
of the Urals, which is a much softer stone, but one which
exhibits a great amount of " fire," especially by artificial
light. This latter stone has only been known within the
last few years ; it is a silicate of iron and lime. It was
found first in the gold-washings of Nischne Tagilsk, and
afterwards in those of the Bobrowska, a stream which flows
into the river Tschussowaia, in the Ural Mountains. By

The Garnet^ Carbuncle, and Cinnamon Stone. 265

mineralogists it has been termed Demantoid, and by Russian
jewellers it is often called "Siberian Chrysolite," or Olivine.
I am sorry to say it has been sold in England as Olivine,
at as high a price as £5 per carat.

UWAROWITE.
Chemical Composition : —
Silica
Lime
Chromium oxide

Alumina

Hardness
Specific Gravity
Crystalline System
Forms

37
33
23

100

7'5 to 8

3'5

... Isometric or Cubic.

Rhombic dodecahedra

and 24-faced trapezohedra.

CHAPTER XV.

HEMATITE.

HERE are certain ores of iron which are used
to a limited extent in jewellery and in the
Fine Arts — notably Hcematite, a mineral which
has been used from time immemorial for in-
taglios, and occasionally for the imitation of black 'Pearls.
Although of steel-grey colour when polished, the streak
of the mineral, when scratched, is of a reddish-brown or
cherry-red colour, whence the word Hcematite, meaning
" blood-stone," is derived.

The occurrence of Haematite is wide-spread, but the
hard variety which is polished as an ornamental stone, is
found chiefly in the Carboniferous Limestone of Cumber-
land, especially near Whitehaven. Crystals, when found
have often a highly splendent lustre, and are hence known
as " Specular Iron-ore." Usually, however, the Haematite
occurs in reniform or kidney-shaped masses, whence it is
often called "kidney-ore."

H/EMATITE.

Composition — Peroxide of Iron, containing —
Iron ... ... ... 70

Oxygen... ... ... 30

100

Specific Gravity ... ... 4'5 to 5-3

Hardness ... ... ... 5 '5 to 6*5

System ... ... ... Rhombohedral.

Forms — Complex modifications of Rhombohedra
but generally reniform and massive.

CHAPTER XVI.

HIDDENITE.

named.

IDDENITE is a very rare and comparatively
little-known gem-stone, which was discovered
in 1880 in Alexander County, North Carolina,
by Mr. W. E. Hidden, after whom it was
In appearance it is something like the Emerald,
both in its rough and cut states. It is of a brilliant green
hue, lighter than that of the Emerald, verging towards
yellow, and possessing a beauty of its own. Hiddenite is
a variety of the mineral called Spodumene or Tripkane, and
is sometimes termed " Lithia Emerald." It occurs in
association with Emeralds, and the two gem-stones have
been worked by " The Emerald and Hiddenite Mining
Company." A station on the Taylorsville extension of the
Western North Carolina Railroad, near the mine, is named
" Hiddenite."

HIDDENITE.

Composition — A silicate of Aluminium and Lithium.
Specific Gravity ... ... ... ... 3

Hardness ... ... ... .. 7

Crystalline System ... ... ... Monoclinic

CHAPTER XVII.

IOLITE.

NDER the name of lolite or Dichroite the
mineralogist is familiar with a certain stone
which is remarkable for its pleochroism, ro
differences of tint when viewed in different
directions. Occasionally it is cut and polished as a gem-
stone, and is known to the jeweller as Saphir d'eau. The
best specimens come from Ceylon, those from Bavaria
being almost opaque. It is also found at Haddam, Con-
necticut. The usual colours are various shades of blue and
violet, whence the name " lolite." The dark blue lolite
is sometimes known as Lynx-sapphire, but this term is also
occasionally applied to an indigo-blue variety of true
sapphire.

IOLITE.

Chemical Composition.

Silica ... ... ... ... 49

Alumina ... ... ... 34

Magnesia ... ... ... 9

Ferrous oxide . 8

100.

System of Crystallization ... ... Trimetric

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2 '6

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7

Form ... ... Prismatic crystals, or as pebbles.

CHAPTER XVIII.

JADE.

RUE Jade is known to mineralogists as Nephrite
or " kidney-stone," in consequence of its for-
mer use in diseases of that organ. It is a
compact variety of hornblende, consisting of
a silicate of magnesium and calcium. Much of the mineral
known as Jade was separated from Nephrite, many years
ago by M. Damour, and regarded as a distinct species
under the name of Jadeite. This is a silicate of aluminium
and sodium, and seems to be a form of acmite. The spe-
cific gravity of Jadeite is above 3, and may be as high as
3*3, while that of true Jade is generally below 3, and never
exceeds 3*18.

The Chinese have for ages worked this stone into
most elaborate and delicate forms, and prized it as one of
the choicest products of the mineral kingdom. Most of
the Chinese Jade is obtained from the quarries of Upper
Burma. Jade was also used by the Maories, or natives of
New Zealand, chiefly for the grotesque breast ornament
known as tiki, and for the peculiar club called the mere, or
pattoo-pattoo. This Jade, called in New Zealand punamu,
or " green stone," is also now used for earrings, pendants,
charms, and other ornamental objects. Jade is also found

270 Jade.

in Siberia, New Caledonia, Turkestan, Burma, Alaska, and
a few other localities, but usually in only limited quantity.

Chemical Composition (Green Jade or Nephrite, of New

Zealand) : —

Silica .. 57-75

Magnesia ... . . ... ... 19*86

Lime ... ... ... ... 14*89

Oxide of iron, alumina, &c. ... 7*50

lOO'OO

Specific Gravity .. ... 2*91 to 3*18

Hardness ... ... ... .. 6'5

Form .... Amorphous: occurring as a rock.

CHAPTER XIX.

JASPER.

Y modern mineralogists the term Jasper is re-
restricted to the opaque varieties of Quartz,
which present a compact texture, and art-
destitute of any crystalline structure. But the
Jasper of the Ancients was evidently a different substance^
inasmuch as it is usually described as possessing a green
colour associated with more or less translucency. The
Greek name, Jaspis, according to Isodore, "signifieth
green, and such a green as doth illustriously shine forth
with a very supreme viridity, or greenness of glory." Pliny
considers the Jaspis to be a gem of a dull green-colour,
like an Emerald, but not so transparent The name itself
is very ancient. This gem is said to be the Jaspeli or
eleventh stone, in the breastplate of the High Priest. The
glory of the supposed Jasper is often made use of in the
Holy Scriptures to represent the New Jerusalem, but the
author believes this to be wrongly translated and to refer
really to the Diamond.

Pliny assures us that Eastern nations wore pieces of it
as amulets. Even Galen soberly asserts that " the green
Jasper benefits the chest and mouth if tied upon it ; " and
De Boot, writing so late as 1609, does not hesitate to
ascribe rare medicinal virtues to the Jasper.

Jasper is commonly found in compact masses or as
pebbles. Its colours are brown, yellow, and red of various
shades, sometimes green and rarely blue. That known as

2/2

Jasper.

Egyptian Jasper is found in rounded masses, in the desert
near Cairo ; it is of dull yellow colour, deepening into
brown, and is usually marked with stripes or zones.

Common Jasper, generally red and brown, but some-
times yellow and black, is found in many localities ; for
example, in the old rocks of North Wales and in Scotland.

Ribband or Striped Jasper occurs in compact masses
with a conchoidal fracture. It has stripes or zones of grey,
green, yellow, red, and brown, and is mostly found in
Siberia. The so-called Porcelain Jasper is only burnt clay.

The Red Jasper was much valued in early times for
engraving. In the Vatican there is a beautiful vase of Red
Jasper, with white veins, and another of Black Jasper, with
yellow veins. In China the Emperor's seal is of Jasper ;
and in that country the stone is highly valued. In Florence
the Yellow Jasper is largely employed for Mosaics, and the
Ribband Jasper for cameos.

JASPER.

Chemical Composition : —
Silica
Oxide of iron

Specific Gravity

Hardness

Form

99-5

•5

100*0

2-6

7
Amorphous.

CHAPTER XX.

LABRADORITE.

HE Spaniards found amongst the ornaments
of the Indians, dwelling upon the shores of
the Amazon, grotesque figures formed of this
mineral, supposed to have been exhumed
from the tombs of the old Peruvians. It is now found
principally on the northern coast of Labrador, and was
originally sent home by the Moravian missionaries.

From its occurrence in the Peninsula of Labrador,
where it forms, by its remarkable brilliancy of colour, the
"fire rocks" of the Indians, it is variously known as
Labrador^ Labradorite, or Labrador felspar. The last name
shows that it belongs to the great family of Felspars. It '
is, indeed, a common constituent of many rocks, but only
exceptional specimens are sufficiently beautiful to be used
as ornamental stones, and even these have very little value.
Generally speaking, the body-colour is a dull grey,
brown, or greenish brown ; but typical specimens of the
mineral possess a remarkable iridescent chatoyancy, or
internal reflection of prismatic hues, especially bright blue
and green, with more or less golden yellow, peach colour,
and red. From its remarkable play of colour it has become
a great favourite with many connoisseurs, and at one time
was much used for cameos. The colours are best seen
when the stone is polished flat, parallel to the reflecting

surfaces.

274 Labradorite.

In addition to the brilliant iridescence, many specimens
of Labradorite exhibit a beautiful spangled appearance,
like that of Avanturine. The iridescence is due to the
presence of numberless thin plates, which give rise to what
are called "interference phenomena," whereby a peculiar
brilliancy is obtained, something like that on a peacock's
feather. The spangled effect is attributable to very
minute plates of oxide of iron distributed through the
stone. It is not, however, every piece of Labradorite that
exhibits these phenomena. The stones which have the
most beautiful colours come from the coast of Labrador
and St. Paul's Island, where they occur in masses, and
from Norway, where they are found as loose blocks.

Great care has to be taken in the manipulation of this
stone to preserve the play of colour ; for if any facets are
given to it, this generally disappears. The first block of
Labrador was brought to Europe in 1775, and the rock was
discovered in Russia in 1781. Still later, two blocks were
found on the shores of the Paulovka, which exceeded all
hitherto known specimens in size, one weighing 1,000 Ibs.

LABRADORITE.

Composition: — Silicate of aluminium, calcium, and sodium.

Silica 52-9

Alumina ... ... ... 29*3

Lime ... ... ... 12*3

Soda, etc 5-5

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 27

Hardness ... ... ... ... 6

Crystalline System ... ... ... Triclinic.

Form ... ... Usually in cleavable masses.

CHAPTER XXL

LAPIS-LAZULI.

HIS stone is remarkable for its beautiful blue
colour, whence the Arabians call it Asul,
meaning "blue." Theophrastus describes a
blue stone "spotted with gold dust," while
Pliny speaks of it as being "like to the serene blue heavens,
fretted with golden fire." The " gold " mentioned by these
and other ancient authors refers to the spangles of brass-
like iron-pyrites which are commonly dispersed through
the rich blue substance of the Lapis- Lazuli.

The colour of the stone varies from pale azure to deep
blue, with a tint of green ; but is seldom quite pure, being
often mottled with white and yellow spots. Indeed, the
Lapis-Lazuli is not a homogeneous substance, but consists
of a definite blue mineral, which is probably referable to
the species Hauyne, associated with a colourless substance,
whence its mottled appearance. It is brittle, has but little
lustre, and is translucent only at the corners of thin edges.
The precise origin of the beautiful blue colour of the
Lapis-Lazuli is still a matter on which chemical opinion is
divided. It is usually referred to the presence of a sul-
phide, probably of sodium and iron, but it appears likely
that the sulphur is present in the form both of a sulphide

276 Lapis- Lazuli.

and of a sulphate. Lapis-Lazuli fuses with great difficulty,
and expands before the blow-pipe, after which it becomes

a porous, colourless glass ; but if heated with saltpetre, it
turns to a beautiful green.

In the Cordilleras, near the sources of the Cazadero
and Vias — little tributaries of the Rio Grande — not far
from the high road leading to the Argentine Republic,
and a short distance from the great watershed in the Chili
dominions, the Lapis-Lazuli is found in a thick stratum of
carbonate of lime, accompanied by small quantities of iron
pyrites.

i Lapis-Lazuli is also found in Siberia, on the shore of
the Shudank, particularly on the lands near the Baikal
Lake, into which that river empties itself. Marco Polo, in
his travels to the princes of Tartary in 1271, found it in the
upper district of the Oxus, mixed with iron ore, whence
the Armenian merchants still bring it to the market of
Orenburg, in Eastern Russia. In many provinces of China,
and in Bucharia, it is found in granular limestone with
iron pyrites, and, on the banks of the Indus, in a greyish
limestone.

In Italy it is a favourite stone for ornamenting
churches, and in the chapel of San Martini, at Naples, the
Lapis-Lazuli is profusely employed not only for decorative
work, but even as a structural material. In the Zarskoe
Palace, near St. Petersburg, there is an apartment, called
Catherine II.'s chamber, formed entirely of Lapis-Lazuli
and Amber.

This stone was in early times much valued, because
it was the only material from which the true ultra-marine
of the artist, so celebrated for its effect and permanence,,
could be obtained. Artificial ultra-marine is now prepared

Lapis-Lazuli.

277

on a very large scale, at a cheap rate, and closely resembles
the natural pigment, not only in its splendid colour, but
even in its chemical composition.

LAPIS-LAZULI,

Composition : —
Silica ...
Alumina

Soda

Lime ...
Iron ...
Sulphuric acid
Sulphur
Chlorine
Water and loss

45'5

31-8

9-1

3'5
0-8

5*9
0-9
0-4

2'I
lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... 2*3 to 2*5

Hardness ... ... ... ... 5*5

Crystalline System ... ... Isometric.

Form . . . Dodecahedron, but very rare ; generally
massive.

V
CHAPTER XXII.

MALACHITE.

HERE can be little doubt that this stone was
known to the Ancients, and it has been sug-
gested that our Malachite was the Smaragdus
Medicus of Pliny.

Malachite, a hydrated carbonate of copper, is found in
almost every locality which yields copper-ores, occurring
principally in the upper parts of the deposits where atmos-
pheric influences have been at work. The finest specimens
have been obtained from the mines of the Urals, and from
the great deposits of copper-ore in South Australia.

Malachite is occasionally found in crystals, but perfect
specimens are rare. It usually occurs in masses with
rounded surfaces — mammillated, botryoidal and reniform —
which have evidently been deposited from solution in
water, much in the same way that deposits of stalagmitic
marble have been formed. Its gradual deposition in
successive layers is shewn by the concentric structure
which specimens of Malachite so often display, and owing
to this structure, a slab of polished Malachite usually
exhibits a beautifully variegated pattern.

MALACHITE,

Chemical Composition — Copper oxide .., 71.9

Carbon dioxide ... 19-9

Water 8*2

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 37 to 4*0

Hardness ... ... ... ... 3-5 to 4/0

Crystalline System ... ... ... Monoclinic.

Form ... Usually modified oblique rhombic prisms,
but rare ; usually botryoidal or stalagmitic.

CHAPTER XXIII.

MOONSTONE, SELENITE, AND SUNSTONE.

JNERALOGISTS of the present day apply the
name Selenite to the finer varieties of Gypsum
— a common mineral much too soft to be of
any real service in jewellery, yet presenting in
its fibrous forms so pleasing a lustre as to be occasionally
cut and polished as an ornamental stone. This fibrous
Gypsum or Selenite occurs in the New Red Marls of
Derbyshire and Staffordshire, and especially in the neigh-
bourhood of Newark, in Nottinghamshire, where it is
worked to a limited extent into beads and other trivial
objects. Selenite derives its name from its soft lustre,
suggestive of moonshine ; but though the word literally
signifies " moonstone," no jeweller would think of design-
ating it by such a term — the word " moonstone " being
invarably applied to an entirely different stone.

" The Selenite," says Adreas Baccius, " is a kind of
gem which doth contain in it the image of the moon, and
it doth represent it increasing and decreasing according to
the increase and decrease of the moon, in its monthly
changes." The Greeks called it Aphroselene, which signifies
the splendour of the moon, or a beam of the moon, whilst
the Romans called it Lunaris. Dioscorides says "it is
found in Arabia, and is endued with virtues, as of making
trees fruitful, and of curing epilepsy ; " he adds that " in
the night it will illuminate the place that is next to it."

Whatever the Moonstone of the Ancients may have
been, the Moonstone of the present day is an opalescent

280 Moonstone, Selenite, and Suns tone.

variety of orthoclase-felspar termed Adularia — a name
which it derives from Mount Adula, one of the highest
peaks of St, Gothard, where it occurs. The best specimens
however, come from Ceylon. There can be little doubt
that the Romans received consignments of it, with the
other products of Taprobane (Ceylon). The pleasing lustre
of this stone has led to its use by the jeweller, and a short
time ago it had a great run, but at present is quite out
of fashion.

While one member of the Felspar group is known as
Moonstone, another is recognised as Sunstone. This is a
reddish or golden coloured variety of Oligoclase, exhibiting
internal prismatic reflections and minute spangles due to
the presence of included crystals of oxide of iron or of
mica. It is found to a limited extent in Norway, and is
but rarely employed in jewellery.

The Chemical Composition of the two Felspars may be
taken as follows : —

Moonstone (Ortkoclase).

Silica 647

Alumina ... 18-4
Potash 16*9

lOO'O

Crystalline System —

Monoclinic.

Specific Gravity — 2*5 to 2*6
Hardness 6

Sunstone (Oligoclase}.

Silica 61-9

Alumina ... 24*1

Lime ... ... 5*2

Soda 8-8

lOO'O

Crystalline System —

Triclinic.

Specific Gravity... 2'$ to 27
Hardness 6

CHAPTER XXIV.

MOROXITE.

DARK bluish-green variety of Apatite, or
calcium phosphate, found originally at Aren-
dal in Norway, and at Pargas in Finland,
has been termed by mineralogists Moroxite.
The name is fancifully derived from a certain Greek word
applied to a stone used by the Ancients in bleaching linen.
Clear crystals of Moroxite have occasionally been cut and
polished, but their softness renders them ill-suited for
jewellery. It appears that some of the material occasionally
sold as Moroxite is nothing but paste.

MOROXITE.
Chemical Composition ; —

Phosphoric Anhydride ... ... 41

Lime 55

Iron Oxide, Chlorine, &c. ... 4

100

Specific Gravity ... • ... ... 3*2

Hardness ... ... ... ... 5

Crystalline System ... ... ... Hexagonal

Form ... Six-sided prisms, variously modified.

CHAPTER XXV.

OBSIDIAN.

EOLOGISTS apply this name to a volcanic
glass or fused lava, and at first sight it may
seem strange that such a substance should find
a description in a work on Precious Stones.
Obsidian was, however, used by the Ancients as an
ornamental stone, and it is still occasionally cut and
polished. It is generally of bottle-green colour, and when
cut looks somewhat like a Peridot or a green Tourmaline.
The great objection to the stone is its softness, which
is rather less than that of Felspar. A brown streaked
American variety is cut and polished under the name of
Mahogany Obsidian. A Siberian variety, with a pleasing
silvery sheen, is occasionally used in the manufacture
of snuff-boxes and other ornamental articles. Curious
globular masses of Obsidian, known from a Siberian
locality as Marekanite, sometimes explode, when struck,
like Ruperts' drops. "Obsidian bombs" are occasionally
found in Western Australia, and elsewhere.

OBSIDIAN.

Chemical Composition : —

Silicate of alumina potash, iron and lime.
Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2 '6

Hardness ... ... ... ... 6*5

Form ... .. ... ... Amorphous.

CHAPTER XXVI.

ORIENTAL ONYX.

JNYX is a celebrated variety of tinted Agate,
having its colours arranged in parallel strata.
The Oriental Onyx is obtained from India,
Egypt, Arabia, and Armenia. The inferior
variety mostly comes from Uruguay, Bavaria and Bohemia.

About 50 years ago this Oriental Onyx was greatly
valued in this country as an ornamental stone, and I
remember ;£iooo being paid for a very fine row of beads
of this Onyx, which was got together with much difficulty ;
but at the present time the stone has but little value.

Some stone, called by translators Onyx, ranke J among
the highest class of gems in the ante-Christian world.
Pliny likens it in colour to the human finger-nail ; and it
is upon this similarity that its Greek name Onyx is
based. The Greeks attached the following mythological
origin to this stone ; " Cupid, with the sharp point of his
arrow, cut the nails of the sleeping Venus, which fell into
the Indus ; but as they 'were of heavenly origin they sank,
and became metamorphosed into Onyx."

The Onyx has been chiefly used for necklaces,
cameos, and costly vessels. In making the cameo, the
figure is carved out of the light colour, and stands in relief
on the dark ground.

284 Oriental Onyx.

Amongst the most celebrated of these cameos is the
" Schafthausen Onyx " — one of the most cherished,
treasures of the Canton of Schaffhausen. The figure
engraved on it is a female wearing a crown of honour,
holding in one hand a horn of plenty, in the other a
Mercury's staff. The figure Dr. Oeri identifies as " Pax,"
and the Cameo was cut between A.D. 68 and 82. It is of
great historical interest, and is supposed to have been
brought from Constantinople by Ortleib von Frohberg,
who was a trusted friend of Konrad III. and Friedrich I ,
and took part in the Second Crusade.

One of the most famous of the Antique Cameos is the
Mantuan Vase ; the base is brown, and on it, in relief, are
groups of white and yellow figures, representing Ceres and
Triptolemus in search of Proserpine. The Vase is formed
from a single stone, and is seven inches high and two-and-
a-half broad. In the Museo Nazionale, at Naples, there
are many Cameos in Onyx ; one (eleven inches by nine)
representing the apotheosis of Augustus ; and another with
the head of Medusa carved on one side, and the apotheosis
of Ptolemy on the other.

Onyx has been found in such large masses that small
pillars have been made of it : there are six such in the
Basilica of St. Peter, at Rome. At Cologne, in the Temple
of the Three Magi, there is one broader than the palm of
the hand. Appianas says that Mithridates, King of
Pontus, had 2,000 cups of this gem ; it is scarcely possible,
however, to believe that they could have been of true
Onyx ; probably they were simply Onyx- marble.

By modern mineralogists the term Onyx is restricted
to an Agate-like substance, formed of alternating white
and brown or black layers of Chalcedony. When the

Oriental Onyx. 285

white zone is so thin that the deeper dark-coloured layer

shines through with a bluish tint, the stone is called a

Nicolo, an Italian corruption of " Onicolo " or " Little

Onyx." If the strata be alternately white and red, or

reddish-brown the resulting mixture is known as Sardonyx.

The finest specimens of Onyx are often termed

Oriental," whatever their original locality may have been.

ORIENTAL ONYX.

Composition — Silica, with traces of colouring matter
Specific Gravity ... .-.. ... 2*6

Hardness ... ... ... ... 7

Form ... ... ... ... Amorphous.

CHAPTER XXVII.

PERIDOT OR CHRYSOLITE.

(HIS is a very ancient stone, and is said to have
been, at one time, considered of more value
than the Diamond, but the author cannot
believe this statement.

In the Wardrobe Book of Edward I., the Peridot is
mentioned among the jewels of the deceased Bishop of
Bath and Wells, which were escheated to the Crown.

The Peridot has a very pleasing yellowish- green colour,
and is susceptible of a fine polish, but it is so soft as to be
easily scratched. It is a stone that requires considerable
skill and care in polishing, the final lustre being imparted
to it by means of sulphuric acid, It usually occurs in
fragments much worn by the action of water, but well-
defined crystals have been found, which prove that its
native form is that of the rhombic prism.

Although the Peridot has not retained its pristine
repute, it is still in demand. The gem looks well if
judiciously set in gold, and the deeper the green the more
valuable the stone, but it requires Diamonds to set off its
beauty.

It has been pointed out in treating of Chrysoberyl,
that, owing to lapidaries calling that stone the "Oriental
Chrysolite," considerable confusion has arisen between the
two gems. A comparison of their chemical composition

Peridot or Chrysolite. 287

is, however, sufficient to shew that scarcely any two
minerals differ more widely in their constitution — the one
being an aluminate of glucina, the other a silicate of mag-
nesia. The Chrysolite of mineralogy is in fact, practically
the same stone as the Peridot.

Mineralogists include the Chrysolite and the Peridot
under the one species Olivine. The colors of Olivine
vary from light straw yellow to yellowish green, when
the stone receives the name of Chrysolite ; and thence to
a peculiar soft hue, of a delicate deep yellowish green,
when it is called Peridot. It is found in Egypt, Brazil,
Mexico, Arizona, South Africa, and other countries,
generally as small pebbles, and it occurs in fragments in
most of the gold drifts of New South Wales. Of late a
large quantity of rough Peridot has come into the market
from two new mines.

PERIDOT OR CHRYSOLITE.

Chemical Composition : —

Silica ... ... ... 3973

Magnesia ... ... ... 50*13

Ferrous oxide ... ... 9*19

Nickel oxide, &c 95

lOO'OO

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3-35

Hardness ... ... ... ... 6'5

Crystalline System ... ... Trimetric.

Form . . . Generally in water- worn pebbles.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

PHENAKITE.

F late years this rare mineral has occasionally
been used in Russia as a gem-stone. The
kind employed for this purpose is perfectly
transparent and colourless, exhibiting when
skilfully cut great brilliancy, and bearing much superficial
resemblance to Diamond.

Phenakite — like the Emerald, the Chrysoberyl, and
Euclase — contains the rare metal glucinum or beryllium.
The finest Phenakite occurs in mica-schist at Stretnisk, on
the River Takowia, not far from Ekaterinburg, in the
Urals. It is also found in Norway, and at Pike's Peak,
in Colorado, but is, in all localities, a rather scarce mineral.

PHENAKITE.

Chemical Composition ; —

Silica ... ... ... 54-2

Glucina ... ... ... 45*8

lOO'O

Crystalline System Rhombohedral.

Specific Gravity .. ... ... 3

Hardness 7-5 to 8

Form ... ... ... Prismatic crystals.

CHAPTER XXIX.

QUARTZ CAT'S EYE.

OR a description of Quartz Cat's Eye, and
the True Cat's Eye, see pp. 21 1 to 213. Thin
fibres of asbestos interspersed with regularity
in the quartz give rise to the characteristic
appearance of this stone. It is brought chiefly from
Ceylon, and from Hof in Bavaria.

The Crocidolite, or "Wood Cat's Eye," of South
Africa, known also as " Tiger's Eye " and " Hawk's Eye,"
has been described at pp. 257, 258.

Neither the quartz Cat's Eye, nor the South African
Crocidolite is of more than trivial value.

CHAPTER XXX,

RHODONITE.

IT is the rose-red colour of this mineral which
has gained for it the name of Rhodonite (from
the Greek rhodon, a rose); and it is this colour
also which gives it a place among ornamental
stones. Rhodonite is an opaque silicate of manganese'
found in masses, sometimes of considerable size, especially
near Ekaterinburg, in the Urals. By the Russian lapi-
daries it is occasionally worked into vases and other orna-
mental objects. It also occurs at Kapink, in Hungary,
where it is associated with black oxide of manganese,
which gives a variegated colour to the stone. . It is only
certain varieties of Rhodonite which can be advantageously
used by the lapidary.

RHODONITE.

Chemical Composition :

Manganese oxide 54-2

Silica ... 45-8

lOO'O

Crystalline System ... ... Triclinic

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3*6

Hardness ... ... ... ... 5*5

Form ... Rarely crystallized ; usually massive.

CHAPTER XXXI.

ROCK CRYSTAL.

JEREOF the common opinion hath been, and
still remained] among us," said the learned
Sir Thomas Browne, in his famous work on
Vulgar Errors^ in 1646, "that Crystal is
nothing else but ice or snow concreted, and by duration of
time congealed beyond liquation. Of which assertion, if
prescription of time and numerosity of assertors were a
sufficient demonstration, we might set down herein as an
unquestionable truth ; nor should there need ulterior dis-
quisition. For few opinions there are which have found
so many friends, or been so popularly received through all
Professions and Ages." The word crystal is, in fact, a
standing testimony to this strange belief, since it owes its
•origin to the Greek word krustallos, which means "ice."
Pliny, Seneca, and other ancient writers — not to mention
Austin, Gregory, Jerome, and several early fathers of the
Church — have given their adhesion to the opinion that
Rock Crystal is nothing but water congealed by a cold so
intense that ordinary methods fail to melt it.

Modern science, however, dispelling such illusions,
has proved that Rock Crystal is a pure and limpid form of
Quartz — a natural variety of silica.

Rock Crystal is found in a variety of forms, sometimes
of extraordinary size and beauty. Its colour varies from
pure white to greyish-white, yellow-white, yellowish-
brown, clove-brown, and black. According to its colour
it receives a variety of names : thus the yellow is known
as Citrine and False-Topaz^ the brown as Cairngorm and

292 Rock Crystal

Smoky-Quartz, and the black as Morion. The clear
varieties are transparent, and possess double refraction.

The frequent admixture of chlorite, asbestos, rutile,
iron pyrites, and actinolite in the crystals is very remark-
able. In some specimens there are cavities with liquid
enclosures, which move as the crystal is turned. The
brilliant hair-brown needles of Rutile, penetrating the
crystal in all directions, impart a curious appearance to
the stone, and such specimens are often cut for brooches,
under the name of Fleches d' } Amour, or "Cupid's arrows,"
or " Venus's Hair-Stone.1' It is also known as Sagenite,
or Sagenitic quartz.

Among European localities for Rock Crystal, the most
remarkable are those in Switzerland. A little distance
from the Grimsel, it is found in the mines of Jochle Berg
and Zinkenstock. In 17315 the yield from the cave of
Zinkenstock alone was valued at £2,250. The most
famous mine, perhaps, is that of Fischbach, in the Visperthal,
which supplied the crystal for the great Pyramid of
Marsfield, 1797, This block measured three feet in
diameter, and weighed over 800 Ibs. It is now in the
Natural History Museum at Paris.

The most remarkable discovery of Rock Crystal on
record is that which was made in 1867 at the Galenstock,
above the Tiefen Glacier, by a party of tourists under the
guide Peter Sulzer, of Guttannen. A cave in the granite
yielded more than a thousand crystals, all of large size^
and weighing from 50 Ibs. each to upwards of 3 cwt.
They were, however, of dark colour. In the Museum at
Berne there are some magnificent crystals from this lucky
discovery. One gigantic crystal, known as the t( Grand-
father," weighs as much as 276 Ibs. ; while another, chris-
tened "The King," weighs 255 Ibs.

Rock Crystal. 293

In the clear cavities of the snow-white marble of
Carrara, in Tuscany, Rock Crystal is found in great purity.
Ceylon affords it abundantly ; and Madagascar supplies
large blocks ; but it is from Brazil that our chief commer-
cial supply is obtained, much of it being imported for the
use of the optician, who cuts and polishes it in the form of
spectacle lenses, which are known as " pebbles."

In this country Rock Crystal of small siz^e is not
uncommon, and has been occasionally used as an orna-
mental stone, under the local name of " Diamond," such as
" Bristol Diamonds," " Irish Diamonds," and " Isle of Wight
Diamonds." These are of no value whatever.

The Greeks valued Rock Crystal for its purity and
regular form. Pliny mentions several times in his Natural
History, that the Romans were well acquainted with
its habitat in the Alps, and that they employed it largely
for household luxury and adornment. Nero possessed two
very beautiful drinking cups, one of which cost him a sum
equal to £600. When he heard of the loss of his kingdom*
he is said to have broken them in anger. The Roman
physicians used Crystal balls as lenses, in order to burn
out sores ; and spheres of Rock Crystal have been used,
even in modern times, for divination.

ROCK CRYSTAL.
Composition — Oxygen ... ... 53*3

Silicon ... ... 467

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 2*65

Hardness .... ... ... ... 7

Crystalline System ... ... Rhombohedral.

Forms ... Various six-sided prisms, terminating in
pyramids.

CHAPTER XXXII.

SPHENE,

^PHENE is a mineral which has occasionally
been cut as an ornamental stone. Its appear-
ance is somewhat between that of Opal and
Chrysolite. In colour it varies from pale
yellow to green ; and it exhibits all degrees of transparency,
some varieties being, however, opaque. Only the most
transparent and clear specimens have the claim to be
classed as gem-stones ; and although the mineral has a
remarkably brilliant dispersive power, its softness is
against its ever being extensively used. Among its many
localities mention may be made of Arendal, in Norway,
of St. Gothard and Mont Elanc, and many parts of
North America.

SPHENE.

Composition : — T itanic Oxid e ... 41

Silica 31

Lime ... ... ... 27

Iron Oxide I

100

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3*5

Hardness ... ... ... 5 to 5*5

Crystalline System ... ... ... Monoclinic.

Form Wedge-shaped crystals

CHAPTER XXXIII.

SPODUMENE.

F late certain varieties of this mineral have been
cut as gem-stones. Its colours vary from
greyish to greenish yellow ; some varieties are
opaque and others transparent. Although susceptible of
high polish, it is a very difficult material to work, partly
because it is much harder in one direction than another,
and partly on account of its remarkably easy cleavage,
which renders it liable to split.

Spodumene is found in a large number of localities,
but the transparent variety, which alone has been cut as
an ornamental stone, is confined to Brazil.

The mineral previously described as Hiddenite> or
" Lithia Emerald," is only a variety of Spodumene.

SPODUMENE.

Composition-. — Silica

Alumina

Lithia

Iron oxide and soda

64.5
29-0

5*5

I'D

JOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3

Hardness ... ..-, ... ... 7

Crystalline System , Monoclinic.

Fjrm . . . Usually in fragments, exhibiting two
parallel cleavage planes.

CHAPTER XXXIV.
TOPAZ.

HE name of this stone is derived from the
Greek Topazios — a word which appears to
have been sometimes wrongly applied to the
Chrysolite or Peridot. This was probably the
ancient classic gem, called in Hebrew Pittdoh by Professor
Aaron Pick, and Pitdah by Genesius (according to the
Massoreth), the latter of whom imagines that it is derived
from the Sanscrit /z'to (palej, and that the Greek Topazios
s a transposition from Pitdoh to Tipdoh. The ancient
mineralogists described this as a pale yellowish or greenish
gem found in an island of the Red Sea. Boetius says
it is of a fl diluted green colour with yellowness added to
it." Among the virtues then attributed to it we read
that "the Topaz calms anacreontic temperaments."

Under the general name of Topaz modern mineral-
ogists include three distinct stones — (i) the true Topaz ;
(2) the Yellow Sapphire, or the Oriental Topaz ; and (3)
the Occidental or False Topaz. The second is a yellow Cor-
undum, and the third is only a variety of Scotch Quartz.

The true Topaz presents a variety of colours, from
clear white, when it has been occasionally palmed off as
a Diamond, ranging through all shades of light blue and
light green to rose pink, orange, and straw yellow. A
pink colour is frequently obtained by subjecting the
sherry-coloured Topazes to a moderate temperature. The
instability of colour in certain Topazes is attested by the
bleaching which they suffer on exposure to sunlight.

Crystals of Topaz are remarkable for their pyro-
electricity — in other words they become electric on
exposure to heat.

CRYSTALS OF BRAZILIAN TOPAZ.

Topaz. 297

Tavernier, in 1665, saw a Topaz weighing 157 carats
in the treasury of Aurungzeb, which that monarch had
purchased for a sum corresponding to £18,000 of our
money : to-day it would be dear at £180.

The Topaz mines of Brazil are near Ouro Preto,
formerly known as Villa Rica. In the Urals, north of
Ekaterinburg, Topaz is found in granite. In St. Petersburg
there is exhibited a fine crystal, 4| inches long and 4!
wide. In the east of Siberia it is found in blue crystals,
in company with Beryl, Rock Crystal, and Felspar. A
remarkably fine collection of Siberian Topazes, made by
Prof. Kokscharow, of St. Petersburg, may be seen in
the Mineralogical Gallery of the British Museum (South
Kensington), where the -finest crystals are carefully pro-
tected by opaque caps to shield them from sunlight, by
which they might suffer loss of colour.

Topaz is found in Egypt, near the ancient Emerald
Mines of Jebel Zabbara. The mineral is still worked at
Risk Allah.

In Saxony the white, yellow, and the pale violet crystals
are found, and in Bohemia the sea-green variety. The
Saxon Topazes are obtained chiefly from the well-known
Topaz-rock of the Schneckenstein. In Brazil, red specimens
graduating from a pale to a deep carmine tint, have been
discovered ; but most of the Brazilian Topazes are of a
rich wine-yellow colour. The white Topazes of Brazil are
frequently known as Novas Minas. The blue Topaz from
Brazil somewhat resembles Aquamarine, but is distin-
guished by its greater hardness and higher specific gravity.

White Topaz is found in Flinders's Island, in Bass's
Straits ; in the New England district, New South Wales ;
and in various parts of the United States. Fine blue
crystals have been discovered at the famous mineral
locality of Pike's Peak, Colorado, and the species has also

298 Topaz.

been found at Stoneham, in Maine. It is notable that
Topaz is not uncommonly found in connection with ores
of tin in all parts of the world.

The Topaz is one of the few Semi-Precious Stones
found in the British Isles. It occurs at St. Michael's
Mount, Cornwall ; in the Mourne Mountains, Co. Down ;
and in several Scotch districts.

Several engraved Topazes are known ; that in the
Bibliotheque Royale, in Paris, is set as a signet ring, having
the portraits of Philip II. and Don Carlos deeply cut in
it. There is also a citron-yellow Topaz, representing an
Indian Bacchus. The antique Topaz in St. Petersburg,
engraved with the representation of Sirius, is of excellent
workmanship.

The Goutte d'Eau, which is capable of exquisite polish,
is a colourless Topaz. If cut as a Brilliant, with a small
table, the pure gem forms a beautiful ornament ; and some
specimens found in New South Wales and in Brazil, are
worthy of careful cutting, polishing, and setting.

The chemical composition of the Topaz, in addition
to its obvious characteristics, confirms its title to a high
rank among ornamental minerals.

TOPAZ.
Chemical Composition : —

Aluminium ... ... ... 30-2

Silicon ... ... ... 15*5

Oxygen ... ... ... 36*8

Fluorine 17-5

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... ... 3*5

Hardness ... ... ... ... 8

Crystalline System Rhombic.

Form ... Prisms, terminating with pyramids;
the two ends usually dissimilar ; with
strongly-marked basal cleavage.

CHAPTER XXXV.

TOURMALINE.

HE Dutch are said to have introduced Tour-
maline into Europe, from Ceylon. The first
written history of the stone is found in a
book published at Leipzig, in 1707, called
" Curious Speculations of Sleepless Nights" It is mentioned
also in the catalogue of a collection of stones sent over
from Ceylon to Leyden in 1711. For many years small
quantities only of this stone were sent to Europe, and the
German Jews were almost its only purchasers.

Few minerals present greater complexity of chemical
constitution than the Tourmaline. Its composition has been
said to resemble the prescription of a mediaeval doctor, in
which a little of everything was thrown in ; and a reference
to the analysis appended to this chapter will illustrate this
intricacy of constitution. To the student of physics, the
Tourmaline is a stone of singular interest, from the curious
optical and electrical characters which it exhibits. It
enjoys, in its different varieties, a very wide range of
colour, though it rarely displays any vivid or brilliant
hue ; hence it has become a great favourite with connois-
seurs, who can appreciate its soft and sombre tones, but
has not acquired general popularity. Its colours consist
of various shades of grey, yellow, blue, pink, and brown ;
all having a tendency towards the darker hues, even
to black.

300 Tourmaline.

The Tourmaline passes under a variety of mineralogical
names, according to the colour which it presents. The
red varieties are known as Rubellite, the blue as Indicolite,
and the clear and colourless crystals as Achroite ; while
the common black Tourmaline is still distinguished by
the old German name of Schorl.

It often happens that the colour is not constant
throughout the stone, so that one part may be green, while
another portion of the same crystal may be decidedly pink.
An American variety is notable for presenting a central
kernel of red colour, surrounded by a zone of lively green,
and as such crystals are usually three-sided prisms, they
offer, when cut across, a triangular or heart-shaped section,
with the pleasing effect of a red centre fringed by a
green border.

Tourmaline possesses double refraction, and polarizes
light perfectly : hence it is used by opticians in the
construction of polariscopes. Its dichroism is very pro-
nounced, and may be often recognised without the aid
of an instrument.

Tourmaline, in common with many other Precious
Stones, develops electricity under friction. Many Tour-
malines also acquire electric properties when heated — one
end of the crystal becoming positive and the other
negative. This phenomenon is known as Pyro-electricity. It
is connected with the curious form of most of the crystals,
their two extremities exhibiting ^different faces. This
peculiarity of shape is termed hemimorphismt since half of
the crystal presents one form, and half another. When
the temperature of a hemimorphic crystal is either raised
or lowered, its electric equilibrium is disturbed, and
polarity developed ; so that the condition of the crystal
may then be compared with that of a magnet.

Tourmaline. 301

Prof. Miers has shewn that when a mixture of
red-lead and flowers of sulphur is sprinkled, through a
muslin sieve, on to a Tourmaline which having been
warmed is slowly cooling, the orange powder is at once
separated into its components ; the red-lead, becoming
positively electrified by friction through the sieve, flies
to the negative end of the Tourmaline, whilst the sulphur
being negatively electrified, attaches itself to the positive
end.

Tourmaline is found in Siberia, Ceylon, the Urals,
Burma, Saxony, and the Isle of Elba. In the United
States, it has been discovered in great perfection and
abundance, especially at Mount Mica, Paris, Maine.

The Siberian Tourmaline is of carminet hyacinth,
purple, or rose-red, running into violet-blue. When polished
its lustre somewhat resembles that of the Ruby, and the
mineral is sometimes known as " Siberian Ruby."

The Green Tourmaline generally occurs of an olive or
dark green colour, and takes a perfect polish. Crystals
of great beauty are found in Minas-Geraes. The Yellowish-
Green Tourmaline, " Ceylon Chrysolite," is very like an
Aquamarine, and is found in the river beds of Ceylon and
Brazil. Colourless Tourmaline occurs very seldom in
pieces worth the cost of cutting and polishing. Brown
and Black Tourmaline are varieties not used for purposes
of ornament. Black Tourmaline or Schorl is by no means
uncommon in this country, especially in the tin-bearing
districts of Cornwall.

The value of Tourmaline depends upon the colour,
quality, and size of the specimens ; one of exceptional
colour and purity, of five carats weight, might be worth
about £20, but others only a few shillings.

302 Tourmaline.

A very large specimen of Rubellite, or Red Tour-
maline, from Burma, is exhibited in the Mineralogical
Gallery of the British Museum (South Kensington). This
unique group of crystals was presented by the King of Ava
to Colonel Symes when on an embassy to that country,
and has been valued at ,£1000. It has probably lost much
of its original colour and value.

The author has received a very fine piece of reddish
Tourmaline from the Cashmere Sapphire Mines and several
pieces from the Burma Ruby Mines.

TOURMALINE.

Composition — Very complicated and varied. Ac-
cording to Rammelsberg, a green

Brazilian stone gave —
Silica ... ... 38-55

Alumina 38-40

Boron trioxide ... ... 7'2i

Ferric oxide 5-13

Ferrous oxide ... ... 2-oo

Soda 2-37

Fluorine ... ... ... 2*09

Lithia ... I'2O

Lime ... ... ... 1*14

Manganic oxide 0.8 1

Magnesia ... ... 0.73

Potash 0-37

lOO'O

Specific Gravity ... ... 3.0 to 3 • 1 5

Hardness... ... ... ... 7-5

Crystalline System ... ... Rhombohedral.

Form Usually in prisms striated vertically,

• and differently terminated at opposite ends.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

ZIRCON OR JARGOON.

HE Zircon is a lovely stone, the red and
brown varieties being especially noteworthy.
Some of the finest Jargoons present yellow,
green, and blue tints, not unlike those of the
Tourmaline, but with much more fire and lustre. Some
specimens when submitted to great heat, increase in lustre,
but at same time lose colour.

The Zircon is distinguished when in its natural form,
by its quadrilateral crystals, terminating at both ends in a
pyramid. It is of adamantine lustre, transparent to sub-
translucent. In former times this gem was more highly
valued than at present.

Although the localities which yield Zircons fit for
working into ornamental stones are but few, it should be
borne in mind that the coarser forms of Zircon are present
in a great variety of rocks, such as the Zircon-syenite of
Norway and Siberia.

Nicols writing of Zircons 230 years ago, says —
41 They are found in Ethiopia, India, and Arabia. The
Arabs distinguish three kinds — -I, Rubri Colons : 2, Citrini
Colons : 3, Antimonii Colon's. Of these the worst is
found in the river Iser, which is upon the confines of
Silesia and Bohemia."

Klaproth in 1789 discovered in the Zircon an earthy
basis, to which he gave the name of Zirconia. It is the

304 Zircon or ?argoon.

oxide of a peculiar metal called Zirconium, of which the
gem itself is a silicate. The word Zircon is of Arabic
origin.

There is a splendid specimen of a very ancient
engraving on a Zircon in the Paris Museum, the work-
manship of which is exquisite ; it is about 2 inches in
length, and ij in width, and represents Moses with the two
tables of the law. Lord Duncannon had in his collection
a Zircon with an engraving on it representing an athlete.

According to mineralogists, the red and brown
varieties of Zircon form the true hyacinth and jacinth ;
though the stones so called, commercially, are often
Essonite, which is a stone belonging to the Garnet family.
The hyacinthine Zircon occurs in the gem-drifts of
Australia.

ZIRCON OR JARGOON.

Chemical Composition: — Silica ... 34

Zirconia 66

100

Specific Gravity ... ... 4 to 4.86

.Hardness .-. ... ... ... 7'5

Crystalline System ... ... Tetragonal.

Form ... Tetragonal prism with pyramidal termina-
tion: often as rolled pebbles.

A CLASSIFICATION OF

PRECIOUS AND SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES,
under seven separate heads,

according to their
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

i. ELEMENTS

2. OXIDES

DIAMOND (Carbon},
Bort
Carbonado.

CORUNDUM (Alumina}
Ruby.
Sapphire.

HAEMATITE (Ferric Oxide}.

QUARTZ (Silica, Crystallized).
Rock Crystal.
Amethyst.

Cairngorm or Scotch Topaz.
Avanturine.
Quartz Cat's-eye.

CHALCEDONY (Silica, Crystalline}
Carnelian.
Chrysoprase.
Onyx.
Agate.
Heliotrope or Bloodstone.

306 Classification.

OXIDES — (continued)

JASPER (Silica, compact}.

OPAL (Silica, hydrated].

3. ALUMINATES:

SPINEL.

Balas Ruby.

CHRYSOBERYL.

Oriental Cat's-eye.
Alexandrite.

4. SILICATES:

BERYL.

Emerald.
Aquamarine.

EUCLASE.

PHENAKITE.

ZIRCON.

Jargoon.

Hyacinth or Jacinth.

TOPAZ.

OLIVINE.

Chrysolite or Peridot.

DlCHROITE or IOLITE.

GARNET.

Essonite.
Almandine.

Classification. 307

SILICATES— (continued).

Carbuncle.
Pyrope.
Grossularia.
Demantoid.

TOURMALINE,

SPODUMENE.
Hiddenite.

ANDALUSITE.
SPHENE.

FELSPAR.

Moonstone.
Sunstone.
Labradorite.
Amazonite.

OBSIDIAN,
RHODONITE.

JADE.

Nephrite.
Jadeite.

LAPIS-LAZULI.

5. PHOSPHATES:

TURQUOISE.
Odontolite.

MOROXITE.

6. CARBONATES:

MALACHITE.

308 Classification.

7. ORGANIC:

AMBER.

JET.

PEARLS consist essentially of Car-
bonate of Lime, and would
therefore come under the class of
" Carbonates," numbered 6 in the
above scheme of Classification.
But as Pearls are formed by
certain Mollusca, they must be
regarded as organic products, and
should consequently be placed in
class 7. It is, however, not correct
to include them in any scheme for
the Classification of Mineral
substances.

Composition: — (From the Pearl found in Australia
and Ceylonese fisheries). Identical in a sample
from each fishery.

Carbonate of Lime 9172 per cent.

Organic matter ... ... 5 '94 »

Water 2-34

lOO'OO

APPENDIX A.

ON THE

DISCRIMINATION OF PRECIOUS STONES,
Enabling' anyone to test the nature of Different Gems.

HIS Appendix has been prepared with the
view of aiding those readers who may wish to
become acquainted with some of the scientific
means employed in the critical examination
of Precious Stones. As information of this kind is
necessarily somewhat technical, and must be conveyed in
scientific language, it has been considered desirable to add
it in the shape of an Appendix rather than to incorporate
it in the body of the work.

THE HARDNESS OF GEMS.

The hardness of a mineral is a physical characteristic
of considerable importance as a test, inasmuch as it is
found to be fairly constant in each species. In order to
give something like quantitative precision to this test, a
German mineralogist named Mohs, long ago suggested a
standard scale of comparative hardness, which is generally
used at the present day by mineralogists. At the head
of this scale stands the Diamond, the supreme hardness
of which is a character defying imitation. The various
degrees of the scale are numerically ranged as follows,
the hardest being placed at the top of the list, with

3io Appendix.

the highest number, and the softest at the bottom of

the scale : —

10, Diamond. 5, Apatite.

9, Sapphire. 4, Fluorspar.

8, Topaz. 3, Calcite.

7, Quartz. 2, Gypsum.

6, Felspar. i, Talc.

To ascertain the hardness of a stone, rub it over the
edge of another stone of known hardness. If it neither
scratches nor is scratched by it the two are identical in
degree of hardness. If it scratches, say, No. 7, but is
scratched by No. 8, its hardness will lie between the two
numbers. Simple as the test seems to be, it requires con-
siderable skill in some cases to obtain satisfactory results.

To the student of Precious Stones it is only the first
four degrees of hardness that are of interest. It is con-
venient to have representatives of these mounted in tubes,
or handles, for ready use. A small case containing these
stones, conveniently mounted, may be purchased for a
guinea, and will enable any ordinary judge to test a doubt-
ful stone.

POCKET CASE OF STONE TESTS,
(Actual Size).

Appendix. 3 1 1

The Diamond (No. 10) scratches every other stone.
The Sapphire (No. 9) stands next in hardness to the Dia-
mond, and scratches all inferior stones. The Topaz (No. 8)
and the Rock Crystal (No. 7) are the only other minerals
likely to be of service

The Opal, Turquoise, Moonstone and Sphene are all
inferior to Quartz in hardness ; or, in other words, fall
below No. 7 in the standard scale.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

As specific gravity is a readily applicable, yet invalu-
able, aid in the discrimination of Precious Stones, a des-
cription of the usual modes of taking the specific gravity
of a mineral may be useful. By specific gravity is meant
the relative weights of equal bulks of different kinds of
of matter. Distilled water at 60 degs. F. is usually taken
as the unit of comparison, so that if a gem weigh 3 \ times
as much as an equal bulk of water, under the above con-
ditions, it is said to have a specific gravity of 3-5.

One method, now much used, consists in placing the
gem in a liquid of known specific gravity, and observing
whether it sinks or floats. The liquid must necessarily be
of very high specific gravity if it is to be of any use in
dealing with gems. Such a liquid as that discovered by
Mr. Sonstadt, and called after him "Sonstadt's Solution,"
has been used. This is a solution of mercuric iodide in
potassium iodide, and can be prepared of any specific
gravity up to about 3. // is, however, very poisonous, and
must be used with the greatest caution. It is often known
on the Continent as Thoulet's solution,

In this solution, any stone in the following list would
float : — Tourmaline, Turquoise, Emerald, Beryl, all the

312 Appendix.

varieties of Quartz, and Moonstone. On the other hand
Garnet, Sapphire, Ruby, Chrysoberyl, Spinel, Topaz, Dia-
mond, and Chrysolite, from their greater specific gravity,
would sink.

Of late years Sonstadt's solution has been replaced by
other liquids of even higher density. Thus, the boro-tungs-
tate of cadmium is a salt which gives a pale-yellow solution
of the density of 3*28. This is known, from its discoverer,
as Klein's solution. Methylene iodide, again, is a very
convenient liquid, its specific gravity being about 3*3, or
slightly higher. It is a yellow liquid, readily miscible with
benzene ; and its use was suggested by Dr. Brauns.

But the densest of all liquids, as discovered by
Dr. Retgers, is the fused nitrate of thallium and silver,
which has a specific gravity of about 5, and fuses at as low
a temperature as 75° C, or 167° Fah. Thus, at a temper-
ature considerably less than that of boiling water, the salt
forms a liquid, which is clear and colourless, and may be
mixed in any proportion with water, whereby its density
can be reduced at will.

Another method of taking specific gravities is by
weighing the stone first in air and then in water, and
dividing the former weight by the difference between the
two weighings. A simple method, and one generally of
sufficient accuracy, is to employ a first-class pair of Dia-
mond scales, as follows : Drill a small hole in the bottom
of one of the scale pans, through which pass a double fibre
of silk, so as to hang say 4 inches below the pan ; tie a
knot to prevent its slipping through ; suspend the stone in
the silk by bending back the silk upon itself, so as to form
a double slip noose ; and weigh the stone very carefully
while hanging suspended in this position. Then immerse
the stone, as it hangs, in distilled water. It will appear to

Appendix. 313

have lost weight, being, in fact, buoyed up by the water ;
now add carefully more weights, till an equipoise is
effected ; note the weight by which this is obtained, and
divide the original weight of the stone by it, and the
quotient will give the specific gravity required.

Example : In weighing a white stone whose specific
gravity we required, we found the weight of the stone to
be 4, J, y1^, •$£ carats. The weights effecting the equi-
poise, i, i, 3*2, Jj carats. We have, therefore, 2B9f ~ ff,
or 2^ = 3 5 3) which is the specific gravity required. This
would indicate the specific gravity of a Diamond.

Jolly's spring-balance, an instrument made in Munich,
is often now used by mineralogists on the Continent, and
enables the specific gravity of small specimens to be
determined with great rapidity. Another instrument much
used is the Westphal balance, named from its inventor, and
constructed on the principle of the familiar steel-yard.

There are various other methods for determining this
physical constant, but the above will suffice for ordinary
purposes. Care should always be taken to have the stone
perfectly clean, and damped before operation, whilst
all adherent air-bubbles must be most carefully removed.
In the preceding pages the specific gravity of each stone
has been given at the end of its chapter.

THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF GEMS.

The optical properties of Gems are of paramount
importance. It is to these properties that the Diamond
owes its superlative brilliancy and its flashing forth of
" living fire ;" to these properties, too, the Ruby, owes its

3 14 Appendix.

intensity and delicacy of hue and beauty ; in a word, the
optical characters constitute a great gulf that divides the
real stone from the imitation.

Reflection and Refraction.

When a ray of light impinges upon the surface of a
gem, part of it passes through it, in accordance with
well-known optical laws, and part of it is thrown back or
reflected, in obedience to the following laws : —

(a.) The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.

(£.) Both the incident and the reflected ray are in
the same plane, and this is perpendicular to the reflecting
surface.

The amount of light thus reflected is different in
different gems, and it varies also in proportion to the
obliquity with which the incident ray falls upon the stone.
The amount of light reflected increases up to a certain
angle — differing in different stones ; and under certain
conditions total reflection takes place. To this property is
due the superior brilliancy of the Diamond, as every
incident ray which strikes a face, inside the stone, at a
greater angle than 24° 13' is totally reflected. We thus see
the supreme importance of cutting a Diamond, not only of
a graceful and handsome outline, but having each facet cut
with such mathematical precision as to secure the greatest
amount of reflection from its internal surfaces.

Leaving the reflected part of the ray, and passing on
to notice that part which is transmitted through the gem,
we find that this transmission is regulated by laws which
may be thus enunciated : —

(a). A ray of light passing from a rarer into a denser

Appendix. 3 1 5

medium (as from air into a gem) is bent or refracted
towards a line drawn perpendicular to the plane which
divides them : and vice versa.

(£). The sines of the angles of incidence and refraction
bear a constant relation to one another for each substance,
which relation is known as its refractive index or index of
refraction. It is to this property that lenses owe their
magnifying power ; the higher the indices, the higher the
magnifying power. The refractive index of the Diamond
is the highest of any well-known substance. It was the
high refractive index of the Diamond that led Newton to
suspect its composition, as explained at p. 57. Sir D.
Brewster gives the following as the refractive indices (for
the yellow ray) of several gem-stones compared with
glass : —

Diamond ... 275

Zircon ... ... 1-95

Ruby 1.77

Chrysoberyl ... 176
Spinel ... 175 to I '8 1
Crown Glass ... 1-5

An instrument called a Reftectometer has been intro-
duced for the purpose of readily ascertaining the refractive
index, and may be conveniently used in the examination
of certain gem-stones.

Dispersion.

When a ray of common white light passes through a
transparent medium, it may suffer decomposition, and be
split up into its component colours-. If the medium be
properly shaped, this decomposition of the light is rendered
evident, and in place of the white light which entered,
there emerges a beautiful group of all the prismatic
colours of the rainbow.

3 1 6" Appendix.

This act of splitting up is called the Dispersion of
light. It is the phenomenon familiar to all in a chandelier
drop. As might be anticipated, the dispersion is highest
in the Diamond ; in fact, the dispersive power of this
stone is more than three times as great as that of rock
crystal. It is upon this property that the matchless quality
called " fire " in the Diamond depends. The lower the dis-
persive power, the less fire in the gem ; the higher the
dispersive power, the more brilliant and iridescent is the
fire which it reflects from its surfaces. The dispersive
power of certain kinds of glass or paste may be very high,
but their softness renders them comparatively worthless
for ornamental purposes.

Double Refraction.

The Diamond, Spinel, Garnet, and all other substances
crystallizing in the Isometric or Cubic System, or those
occurring in the amorphous condition, normally possess
only simple refraction. The rest of the gems which crys-
tallize in systems other than the cubic, are said to exhibit
double refraction ; that is to say, when a ray of light passes
through them, it is split up into two rays, one of which —
called the ordinary ray — follows the laws of refraction
just described, while the other — called the extraordinary
ray — follows a totally different law. This splitting or
dividing of the ray depends upon the direction in which
the light is transmitted through the gem ; there being a
certain position in which the ray suffers no division, and
the substance simply acts as an ordinary medium, possess-
ing single refraction ; this direction is called the axis of
no refraction or the optic axis. On looking at a small

Appendix. 317

bright flame through a transparent gem-stone, the flame
will, if it be a simply refracting stone, appear single, and
if a doubly refracting stone double. This is, however, a
rough test ; the stone must be moved from the eye till
the effect is obtained ; and the facets of a cut stone
render the determination extremely difficult.

Polarization.

There is an important series of changes that light is
subject to, known to physicists as Polarization. A full
description of this phenomenon cannot be given here ; but
there are several interesting facts that may be mentioned,

When a ray of light falls upon a reflecting surface at
a certain angle, and thence on to another similar surface,
at a similar angle, it will be found that when the second
surface is parallel to the first, the ray will be reflected from
its surface ; but when the position of the second surface is
turned round so as to be vertical, the ray will no longer
be reflected, and will therefore disappear. Under these
conditions, the ray as it leaves the first surface is said to be
Polarized ; and the angle at which this is effected is called
the Polarizing angle. This is different in different stones ;
for glass it is 54° 35'; for Quartz, 57° 32' ; for Diamond,
68° — the angles being measured from a normal to the
reflecting surface. To determine the polarizing angle of a
gem, we have simply to reflect a ray of light from its
surface at such an angle that it shall refuse to be reflected
by a plate of glass inclined at 35° 25' to the ray, when
the plane of incidence is at right angles to the plane
of reflection,

When a ray of light is split into two rays by its
passage through a doubly refracting medium, the two are

Appendix.

polarized ; and the well-known instrument, called a
" Nicol's prism," conveniently enables the observer to obtain
one of these polarized rays apart from the other,

Pleochroism.

Pleochroism is a term used to express the existence
of a plurality of colours in one and the same stone, when
viewed by transmitted light under certain conditions.
This can be made an invaluable aid in the identification
of certain gems, by the help of a little instrument invented
many years ago, by the great Austrian mineralogist,
Haidinger, and called the Dichroiscope. The mineral lolite,
takes its name of Dichroite from its marked dichroism.
This mineral and some other stones, such as certain
Sapphires and Tourmalines, may show the difference of tint
to the unaided eye, but in most cases a special instrument
is needed for its detection.

The dichroiscope is a very simple instrument, con-
structed as follows : — A cleavage rhombohedron of Iceland
spar is fitted into a small metal cylinder, having at one
end a sliding cap, perforated through its centre with an
aperture, usually square. At the other end is a lens, or
combination of lenses, of such focal length that when
the sliding cap is pulled out, it will show, in consequence
of the double refraction of the Iceland spar, two distinct
images of the aperture. If a stone be introduced in front
of the aperture, the two images will be of the same or of
different hues, according to the optical characters of the
stone. Those minerals with crystallize in the Cubic system
such as Diamonds, Garnets, and Spinels, show a pair of
images identical in colour. But all Precious Stones cryst-
allizing in any of the other systems show, except when
viewed in the direction of the optic axis, two images, the

Appendix. 319

colours of which differ to a greater or less extent, This
property of exhibiting two colours is called dickroism,
and the stone possessing it is said to be dichroic.

The following is a list of the principal gems which
shew twin colours when seen with the dichroiscope, as
given by Prof. Church, but slightly modified : —

NAME OF STONE.

TWIN COLOURS.

Sapphire (blue)
Burma Ruby (red)
Siam Ruby (red)
Emerald (green)
Beryl (pale blue)

Aquamarine (sea green)
Chrysoberyl (yellow)
Tourmaline (red)

(green)

(blue)

Peridot (olive green)
Topaz (sherry-yellow)

Greenish straw and Blue

Aurora red „ Carmine red

Brownish red „ Crimson

Yellowish green „ Bluish green

Sea green

Straw white

Golden brown

Salmon

Pistachio green „ Bluish green

Greenish grey „ Indigo blue

Brown yellow

Straw yellow

Azure
Grey blue
Greenish yellow
Rose pink

Sea green
Rose pink

Use of the Spectroscope.

This instrument, which is so familiar to the physicist,
the chemist, and the astronomer, is not often used by the
gem-expert ; but Prof. Church shewed, many years ago,
that it might be usefully employed in the examination of
certain stones. Thus, many transparent zircons, when
viewed through the spectroscope, exhibit a characteristic
series of black absorption-bands ; whilst another set of
bands is shewn by most almandine-garnets.

APPENDIX B.

GENERAL REMARKS
UPON THE TERM OR WORD
CARAT, RATI, AND THOLA.

HE word Carat is derived from the name of
a bean, the fruit of a species of Erythima,
which grows in Africa. The tree which yields
the fruit is called by the natives " Kuara "
(Sun), and both blossom and fruit are of a golden colour.
The bean or fruit when dried, is nearly always of the same
weight, and thus in very remote time it was used in
Shangallas, the chief market of Africa, as a standard of
weight for gold. The Beans were afterwards imported into
India, and were there used for weighing the Diamond.

The ounce weight (151^ cts.)

is used for weighing

Baroque Pearls, Coral

and Semi- Precious Stones.

The Rati is 89 per cent, of a carat ;
or, more precisely —

One Carat == 1-2280 Rati.

One Rati = 0*89062 Carat ; and

One Tkola is about 57 carats.

Appendix,

321

The Carat is not of the same weight
in all countries, e.g. : —

England and her Colonies = 205-4090 milligrams.

France „

Vienna „

Berlin

Frankfort- oa-Maine

Leipzig & Amsterdam

Lisbon „

Leghorn „

Florence „

Spain

Borneo „

Madras

205*5000

206-1300

205*4400

2057700

205-0000

2057500

2159900

195-2000

105-3930

105-0000

2073533

INDEX

Achates, River, Agates named from ... ... 235

Achroite (Tourmaline) 300

Adamantine lustre 58

spar (Corundum) ... ... ... 152

Adamas ... ... ... ... ... ... 152

Adularia (Moonstone) ... ... ... ... 280

Afghanistan Rubies ... ... ... ... 160

African Cat's-Eye (Crocidolite) 257

— Diamonds 75

— "Rubies" (Garnets) 263

Agates ... ... ... ... ... ... 235

artificial colouring of 48

Alexandrite 214

Almandine (Garnet) 261

Alphabet of Precious Stones 16

Amazonite (Felspar) ... ... ... ... 239

Amber 240

Amethyst 244

Amsterdam Diamond-cutting 23 — 27

Andalusite ... ... ... ... ... ... 246

Anjou, Duke of, Diamonds of ... ... ... 19

Anthrax 149

Apatite ... 281

Aphroselene 279

Apostle Stones 15

Appendix 308

Aquamarine 247

Arabian Turquoise 223

Aristotle, Precious Stones known to ... ... 12

Index. 323

PAGE.

Arizona Meteorites, Diamonds in 73

Asterias 193

Asterism 193

Astrapia 193

Atlay, Mr., R, at Burma Ruby mines 173 — 174

Australian Diamonds ... ... ... ... 96

Emeralds 208

Opals 219

- " Rubies " (Garnets) ... 160—261

-Sapphires ... 190

Turquoise 225

Austrian Emeralds 208

Avanturine ... ... .,. ... ... 249

Azul (Lapis-Lazuli) ... ... ... ... 275

Badakshan Spinels 196

Bahias (Diamonds) no

Balais Ruby ... 197

Balas J95— J97

Ball, Prof. V., on Indian Diamonds ... 118 — 123 — 127

on Rubies ... ... ... ... ... 151

Baltic Amber 241

Banaganpilly Diamonds 125

Barbot, M.} on Diamonds 59

Barklyite (Corundum) 161

Beau Sancy Diamond 21

Bernardi, Giovanni, gem-engraver 34

Beryl 247

Bingara Diamond field ... ... ... ... 97 — 98

Birago, Clement, Diamond-engraver ... ... 37

Black Opals 220

Black Prince Ruby 156

Bloodstone (Haematite) 266

(Heliotrope) 250

324

Index.

PAGE.

Blue Diamonds ..; 137

Blue Earth, Amber ... ..,.. 241

Diamond ... ... ... ... ... 84

Boggy Camp, Inverell Diamond fields ... 99 — TOO

Bcethius, on Precious Stones 13

Bohemian Garnet (Pyrope) 262

Bone Turquoise ... ... ... ... 231

Bonney, Prof., described S. African blue earth ... 84

Borneo Diamonds... ... ... ... ... 102

Bort ... ... ... -.-.. ... ... id2

Boyle, on the Diamond ... - ... - ... ... 60—62

Brabant Rose Diamonds .. 30

Brazilian Agate ... ... ... ,.. ... 237

Diamonds •••. 106

Pebbles 293

Topaz ... ... ... ... ... 297

Breast-plate of Jewish High Priest 9 — 33 — 44

Brewster, Sir D., on Amethyst 244

on Diamonds ... ... ... ... 58 — 70

Brilliants 28

Briolettes ... ... 31

Bristol "Diamonds" 293

British Guiana Diamonds 117

Brown, Mr. C. B., on Burma Rubies ... ... 154 — 174

Browne, Sir T., on Diamonds ... ... ... 55

on Crystal ... ... ... ... 291

Brunswick Blue Diamond ... ... ... 140

Bruting Diamonds ... ... .... .... 24

Bruzzi, Vincenzio, on coloured Diamonds ... 22

Bultfontein 82—88—94

Burgundy, Duke of, Diamonds of 21

Burma Rubies ... ... ... ... ... 153

Ruby mines of 162 — 169

Sapphires ... ... ... ... ... 184

Index. 325

PAGE.-

Burning Precious Stones 4 7

By on (Ruby earth) 163

Cabochon cut stones 31

Cailliaud, M., on Emeralds of Egypt ... 206

Cairngorm ... ... ... ... ... ... 291

Callainite ... 232

Callais of Pliny 232

Callaite • ... 221

Cameos 33

Canadian Corundum 191

Cape Diamonds 76

-" Rubies " (Garnets) ... 263

Carat, value of ... ... ... ... ... 321

Carbonado 143

Carbuncle (Garnet) .. .. 261

Carbunculus ... 149 — *95

Carnelian 251

Cashmere Sapphires ... ... 185

Cat's-Eye Alexandrite 214

- Crocidolite , ... 257

- Opal 217

Oriental 211

Quartz 289

- Wood .„. ... 289

Ceylon "Chrysolite" 301

Rubies 159

Sapphires 187

Ceylonite (Spinel) 197

Chalcedony 251

Chalchihuitl 223

Chancourtois, M., on origin of Diamonds ... 71

Chaper, M., on Indian Diamonds ... ... 119

Charlemagne, clasp of his mantle ... ... 19

326 Index.

PAGE.

Charles I., engraved Diamond of ... 36 — 38

Charles the Bold, cut Diamonds of ... 21

Church, Prof., on Turquoise ... 221

on Dichroism 3J9

on the Spectroscope ... 3*9

on Zircons ... ... 3T9

Chrysoberyl — 211—253

Chrysolite 286

Oriental 253

Chrysoprase 255

artificial colour of 5 *

Cinnamon Stone (Essonite) 263

Circular Agate 236

Citrine (Yellow Quartz) ... 291

Classification of Stones ... 3°5

Cleavage of Diamonds ... 25

Clouds in Stones 43

Coloured Diamonds i36

Colouring Stones artificially 48

Combustion of Diamond ... 65

Corundum ... J49

Canadian I91

United States 161

Critical angle of Diamond ... ... 58 — 314

Crocidolite ... 257

Crookes, Sir W., on Diamonds 61 — 73 — 86

on Phosphorescence 6 1

on X-rays 61

Cudgegong Diamond fields ... 97

Cupid's arrows ... 292

Cutting of Diamonds ...... 24

Cymophane (Chrysoberyl) ... 211—253

Dana, Prof., on origin of Diamond 7 *

Index. 327

PAGE.

Darcet, M., on Diamonds 62 — 63

Davy, Sir H., on composition of Diamonds ... 64
De Beers Diamond mine ... ... 82 — 87 — 88 — 91

De Boot, cleaved Diamonds 54

— on de-colouring Diamonds 59

Demantoid 264

Derby, Prof., O., on Brazilian Diamonds 107 — 109 — no

Despretz, M., on Diamonds 67

Dewar, Prof., on Diamonds 68

Dewey Diamond 135

Diamond 52

composition of ... ... ... ... 62-

- cutting of 24

- drill 144

- engraving of 37

— origin of ... ... ... ... ... 69

— use of ... ... ... ... ... 44

Diamonds, African ... ... ... ... 75

Australian ... ... / ... ... 96

Borneo ... ... ... ... ... 102

Brazilian ... ... .., ... ... 106

British Guiana ... ... ... ... 117

Indian 118

— Russian 133

— United States 134

Diamantina 109 — 115

Dichroiscope 318

Dichroite 268

Dimetri, M., on Siam Ruby mines ... 158

Dispersion of Light 315

in Diamonds ... ... ... ... 57

Double refraction >.-. «.•-. ... 316

Drill, Diamond ... ... ... ... ••• 144

Dry-diggings for Diamonds ... ... ... 81

328 Index.

PAGE.

Du Toil's Pan ... 82—94

Dutch Rose 30

Dyeing Precious Stones 48

Egyptian Emeralds 203

Jasper 272

Emeralds 198

— Austrian 208

Australian 208

-Egyptian 203

Muzo ... ... ... ... ... 201

United States ... ... ... ... 209

English Diamond cutting ... * ... ... ... 22

Engraved Diamonds 36—37

Engraving on Stones ... ... ... ... 33

Essonite (Cinnamon Stone) 263

Euclase ... ... ... ... ... ... 259

" Excelsior" Diamond 90

figure of ... ... ... ... .. 95

Eye Agate 236

Ezekiel, mention of Precious Stones by ... 45

False Topaz (Quartz) ... ... ... ... 291

Favre, M., on origin of Diamonds ... ... 71

Feathers in Stones 43

Fire-Opal 217

Fleches d'Amour 292

Florentine Academy, experiments of, on Diamonds 62

Floyer, Mr., on Emerald mines of Egypt ... 203

Fluorescent Amber ... ... ... ... 242

Fortification Agate ... ... ... ... 237

Fossil Turquoise (Odontolite) 231

Fourcroy, on Diamonds ... ... ... ... 67

Frank Smith, Diamond mine 94

Friedel, M., on Diamonds 69

Friedlander, Dr., on origin of Diamonds ... 80

Index. 329

PAGE.

Gani Coulour ... ... ... ... ... 126

Gannal, on origin of Diamonds 71

Garnets ... ... ... ... ... ... 260

German Diamond-cutting ... ... ... ... 26

Gassiot, on the Diamond ... ... ... ... 68

Gobel, on origin of Diamonds 69

Gooseberry Garnet (Grossularia) ... .,,. ... 264

Gor-do-Norr Diamond ... ... ... ... 123

Goutte d'Eau ... ... 298

Green Diamonds ... ... ... .., ... 136

Grossularia (Garnet) 264

Guyton de Morveau, on Diamonds. ... ... 66 — 67

Habachthal Emeralds ... ... ... ... 208

Haematite (Ironstone) ... ... ... ... 266

Hair-stone, Venus's 292

Halphen Red Diamond ,,, ,,, ... ... 136

Hardness of Gems ... „, 309

Harlequin Opals ... 217

Hausmann, on the origin of Diamonds ... 69

Haiiyne . ... ... .,, .,, ,,, ,..., 275

Hawk's Eye (Crocidolite) 257

Heliotrope (Bloodstone) 250

Hemimorphism ... ... ... ... ... 300

Hercynite (Spinel) 197

Hermann, early Diamond-cutter ... ... ... 20

Henrietta Maria, engraved Diamond of 36 — 38

Hidden, Mr., on Emeralds ... ... ... 209

Hiddenite ... ... ... ... ... ... 267 — 295

High Priest, Breastplate of 9 — 33 — 44

Honduras Opals ... ... ...... ... ... 220

Hope Blue Diamond 139

Hope Collection, Aquamarine in 248

• Sapphire in .« 181

330 Index.

PAGE.

Hungarian Opal 218

Hyacinth (Garnet) 263

(Zircon) ;.: ... 304

Illicit Diamond buying ... 89

Index of Refraction 315

Indian Diamonds ... ... ... ... ... 118

Indian-cut Diamonds ... ... ... ... 23 — 30

Indicolite (Tourmaline) 300

Intaglios 33

Inverell Diamond Fields ... ... ... ... 99

lolite (Dichroite) 268

Irish " Diamonds " 293

Isle of Wight " Diamonds " 293

Itacolumite (Flexible Sandstone) ... 108

Jacinth (Garnet) 263

(Zircon) 3°4

Jacopo da Trezzo, Diamond engraver ... 37

Jacquelin, on Diamonds ... ... ... 67 — 68

Jade 269

Jadeite ... 269

Jagersfontein ... m ... ... 9° — 94

Jargoon (Zircon) ... ... 3°3

Jarlet, Diamond-cutter 22

Jasper ... ... ... ... 271

Jewish High-priest, breast-plate of " 9 — 33 — 44

Judd, Prof., on Burma Rubies ... 154

Kashmir Sapphires ... 185

Kidney Ore (Haematite) 266

Kidney Stone (Jade) 269

Kimberley Diamond Mine 83—87—88—93

Kimberlite . 84

Index. 331

PAGE.

King, Dr., on Indian Diamonds 125

Koffyfontein 94

Koh-i-nur ... ... ... ... ... ... xvi — 123

Kunz, Mr., on Diamonds of the United States ... 134
on phosphorescence of Diamonds ... 61

Labradorite (Felspar) ... ... .'.'.' ... 273

Lapis-Lazuli ... ... ... ... ... 275

imitation ... ... .. ... ... 50

Lavoisier, on Diamonds ... ... ... ... 64 — 66

Leblanc, on Diamonds '.'.'. ... 63

Leicester Diamond mine 91 — 94

Leonhardt, on origin of Diamonds ... ... 69

Lewis, Prof., Carvill, on origin of Diamonds 71 — 80 — 84 — 85

Borneo Diamonds ... 103

Lewy, M., on colour of Emeralds 201

Liebig on origin of Diamonds ... ... ... 70

Lisbon-cut Diamonds ... ... ... ... 23

Lithia Emerald (Hiddenite) ... 267

Liversidge, Prof., Australian Diamonds of ... 100

Lockhart, Mr. W. S., on Burma Ruby mines ... 162

London Diamond cutting ... ... ... 22 — 23

Louis, Prof. H., on Siam Rubies 159

on Siam Sapphires ... ... ... 183

Louis de Berquem, the Diamond-cutter ... ... 20 — 45

Lynx Sapphire (lolite) ... 268

Macquer, on Diamonds ... ... ... ... 63

Mahogany Obsidian ... ... ... ... 282

Malachite 278

Mallet, Mr., on Indian Diamonds ... ... 118

-on Cashmere Sapphires 186

Marekanite (Obsidian) ... ... ... 282

Marbodus, Bishop, on Precious Stones 13

332 Index.

PAGB.

Marie Antoinette, engraved Diamond of ... 36—38

Marsden, Dr., on origin of Diamonds 72

Mary of Modena, engraved Diamond of ... 36 — 38

Maskelyne, Prof., N.S., on S, African blue earth 84

Maundeville, Sir J., on Rubies 149

Mazarin, Cardinal 21 — 46

Mazarin Diamonds 21

Medlicott, Mr., on Indian Diamonds 131

Meteoric Diamonds ... ... ... ... 73

Mexican Opals ... ... ... ... ... 220

Microcline (Felspar) 239

Miers, Prof., on matrix of Montana Sapphires ... 190

on test for Tourmaline ... ... ... 301

Mitouard on Diamonds ... ... ... ... 64

Mocha Stones ... ... ... ... ... 237

Moissan, M., on Diamonds 68 — 72

Monastery Diamond mine ... ... ... 75

Montana Sapphires ... ... ... ... 188

Monte Christo Diamond mine ... ... ... 98

Months, Precious Stones for special 14

Moonstone (Felspar) ... 279

Morion (Black Quartz) ... ... ... ... 292

Moroxite (Apatite) 281

Morren, M., on Diamonds ... ... ... 68

Morrissey Diamond ... ... ... ... 135

Moss Agates 237

Mudgee Diamond workings ... ... ... 97

Muzo Emeralds 201

Naifes ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

Napoleon I., engraved portrait of, on Diamond ... 36 — 38

Nephrite (Jade) 269

New Mexico, Turquoise of ... .. ... 224

Index. 333

PAGE.

New South Wales Emeralds 208

Opals 220

-Turquoise 225

New Zealand Opal ... "". 220

Newlands Diamond mines ... ... ... 91

Newton, Sir Isaac, on Diamonds ... 56 — 62 — 70

Nicolo (Onyx; ...... 285

Nicol's prism ... ... ... 318

Norfolk Amber '". 241

Novas Minas (Topazes) ... ... ... ... 297

Nuremberg, Diamond polishers of "... ... 19

stone-engraving at ... ... 35

Oberstein, Agate working at ... 48 — 49 — 50

Obsidian ... 282

Occidental Agate ... 237

Topaz ... ... ... ... 296

Odontolite (Fossil Turquoise) 231

Olivine (Peridot) ... 287

Onyx, Oriental 283

Opals ... 216

— Australian 219

— Honduras 220

Hungarian 218

Mexican 220

Optical properties of Gems ... 313

Oriental Agate ... 237

— Amethyst ... ... ... 244

Cat's Eye 211

Chrysolite 253

— Onyx 283

— Topaz 296

Otto's Prospect Diamond mine 94

Panna, Diamond mines of ... 131

Paris gem-cutters of 19

334 Index.

PAGE.

Parisite ... ... ... .. ... ... 203

Parrot, on origin of Diamonds ... ... ... 69

Parteal, Diamonds of ... ... ... ... 128

Pearl, chemical composition of ... ... ... 308

Penning, W. H., on old Diamond workings ... 75

Pepys, on Diamond 67

Peridot (Olivine) 286

Persian Turquoise 225

Petzholdt, on Diamonds ... 65 — 70

Phenakite 288

Phosphorescence of Diamond 60

Rubies 152

Pirsson, Prof., on matrix of Montana Sapphires ... 190

Pitt Diamond 128

Pleochroism 318

Pleonaste (Spinel) 197

Pliny, on Diamonds ... ... ... ... 54

on Crystal 293

Point-cut Diamonds 31

Polarization of light ... 317

Porcelain Jasper 272

Portrait Stones 31

Portugal, Diamond-cutting in 23

Posewitz, on Borneo Diamonds 102

Prehistoric Diamond workings 75

Pyro-electricity ... 300

Pyrope (Garnet) 262

Quartz 291

Cat's Eye 289

smoky ... ... 292

Queensland Opals ... 219
Sapphires ... ... 19*

Rati, value of the 320

Index. 335

PAGE.

Red Diamonds ... ... ... ... ... 136

Reflection of light 314

from Diamonds ... ... ... ... 57

Refraction of light ... ... ... ... 314

by Diamonds ... ... ... ... 56

Refraction, double ... ... ... ... 316

Regent Diamond ... ... ... ... 128

Rhodes, Porter, Diamond ... ... ... 89

Rhodonite 290

Ribband Agate 236

Jasper ... ... ... ... ... 272

River-diggings for Diamonds ... ... ... 80

Roberts, Austen, Prof., on Diamonds ... ... 67

Robinson Diamond mine ... ... ... 94

Rock Crystal ... ... ... ... ... 291

Rogers, on Diamonds ... ... ... ... 67

Rontgen rays, use of in testing gems ... .r. 61

Roscoe, Sir H., on Diamonds ... ... ... 69

Rose, Gustav, on Diamonds 68

Rose Diamonds 30

Rousseau, on Black Diamonds 72

Rubellite (Tourmaline) 300 — 302

Ruby 148

Burma 153

Ceylon 159

Siam 160

Rudd, Mr., on the separation of Diamonds ... 88

Russian Diamonds 133

Emeralds 207

Meteorites 73

Sagenite (Rutile in Quartz) ... ... ... 292

Salzburg Emeralds 208

Sand in Stones ... ... ... ... ... 43

Saphir d'Eau 268

336 Index.

PAGE.

Sapphire 179

— Australian ... ... ... ... ... 1 90

— Burma ... ... ... ... ... 184

— Cashmere 185

-Ceylon ... 187

-Montana 188

— Siam ••.*.. ... ... ... ... 182

Sard 251

Sardonyx 285

Schaffhausen Onyx ... ... ... ... 284

Schindler, Gen., on Persian Turquoise mines ... 225

Schorl (Tourmaline) ... ... ... ... 300

Scotch Pebbles (Agates) 238

Segima Diamond ... ... ... ... ... 104

Selenite (Gypsum) 279

Semi-Precious Stones ... ... ... ... 234

Seton-Karr, Mr., on Emerald mines of Egypt ... 207

Siam Rubies ... *v 157

— Sapphires ... .'.. ... ... ... 182

Siberian "Chrysolite" (Garnet) ... ... ... 265

"Olivine" (Garnet) : 265

"Ruby" (Tourmaline) 301

Sicilian Amber ... ... ... ... ... 241

Simetite (Amber) 241

Simlar, on origin of Diamonds ... ... ... 71

Sinaitic Turquoise ... ... ... ... ... 223

Smaragdus ... ... ... ... ... ... 199

medicus .. ... ... ... ... 278

Smoky Quartz "... ... ... ... ... 292

Smyth, Mr. H. Warington, on Siam Rubies ... 158

on Siam Sapphires ... ... ... 183

Snake rock at De Beers ... ' 85

South African Diamonds 75

"Rubies" (Garnets) ... 263

Index,. 337

PAGE.

South Australian Diamonds ... ... ... 100

- "Rubies" (Garnets) 261

Specific Gravity ... ... ... .. ... 311

Spectroscope, use of ... ... ... ... 319

Sphene ... ... ... ... ... ... 294

Spinel 195

Spodumene ... ... ... ... ... 267 — 295

Staining Precious Stones ... ... ... ... 48

Star Stones ... ... ... ... ... 193

Star of the South ... ... ... ... 112

Star of South Africa ... ... ... ... 78

Star-cut Diamonds ... ... ... ... 29

Stelzner, Prof. A., on South African blue earth ... 84

Step-cut Stones 31

Stewart Diamond 89

Story-Maskelyne, Prof., on South African Diamond-
earth ... ... ... ... ... ... 84

Streeter, Mr. G. S., on Burma Ruby mines ... 162 — 171

- Burma Sapphires ... ... ... 184

Striped Jasper ... ... 272

Stuart, M. Maxwell, on Siam Rubies ... ... 157

Succinite (Amber) ... ... ... ... 241

Sumptuary Laws ... ... ... ... ... 45

Sunstone (Felspar) ... ... ... ... 280

Swiss Diamond-cutting ... ... ... ... 26

Symes, Col., Rubellite of ... 302

Table of a Brilliant ... 29

Tallow-topped stones 32

Tasmanian Sapphire ... ... ... ... 191

Tavernier on Indian Diamonds ... 125 — 126 — 127 — 137

- on Rubies ... ... ... ... 151,

- on Topaz... ... ... ... ... 297

Tests for Gems ... ... ... ... ... 309

338 Index.

I'AGE.

Theophrastus on Precious Stones ... ... 12

Thola, value of ... ... ... ... ... 320

Tibagy Diamonds... ... ... ... ... 109 — no

Tiger's Eye (Crocidolite) 257

Tooth-Turquoise (Odontolite) ... ... ... 231

Topaz ... ... ... ... ... ... 296

- False (Scotch) ... 291 — 296

Total reflection of light 314

Tourmaline ... ... ... ... ... 299

Triphane (Spodumene) 267

Turquoise ... ... ... ... ... ... 221

- Bone or Fossil 231

- Imitation ... ... ... ... ... 50

- Mines of Persia ... ... ... ... 225

United States' Diamonds 134

- Emeralds ... ..., ... ... ... 209

- Opals ... ... ... ... ... 220

- Sapphires ... ... ... ... ... 188

- Turquoise ... ... ... ... 224

U\varowite (green Garnet) ... ... ... 264

Vaal River Diamonds ... ... ... ... 80

Value of a Carat... ... ... ... ... 320

— of Rough Diamonds ... ... ... 146

Variscite ... ... ... ... ... ... 232

Venus's Hair-Stone (Crystal with Rutile) ... 292

" Victoria " Diamond 89

Victorian Diamonds ... ... ... ... 101

- Sapphires ... ... ... ... ... 190

- Turquoise ... 225

Wajra Karur Diamonds ... ... ... ... 119

Warth, Dr., on Bengal Corundum ... ... 187

Wesselton Diamond Mine ... ... ... 83, 93

Index.

339

PAGE.

Williams, Mr. Greville, on the colour of Emeralds 201

Wilson, Dr. G., on Diamonds ... ... ... 71

Wohler, on origin of Diamonds ... ... ... 70

Wollaston, Dr., cleavage of the Diamond by ... 53

X-rays, Diamond transparent to ... ... 61

Yellow Quartz (Citrine) 291

Zircon (Jargoon), silicate of zirconia ... ... 303

HOWLETT & SON, Old Style Printers, 10, FRITH STREET, SOHO, LONDON, w.

Extract from "SOUTH AFRICA? November 23rd, 1895.

. . '. " English people ' who live at home at ease ' appear to
take great pleasure in creating suspicion of everything in the way of
discoveries in which they have no hand. It was the same when
diamonds were first discovered. In the first place, they did not
believe that the stones shown were diamonds ; and had not
Mr. Streeter, of Bond Street, one of the highest authorities on
precious stones, come to the rescue, there would, in all
probability, have been no South African diamond industry during
the present century. It wa*s Mr. Streeter who satisfied the world
that there were diamonds to be found in South Africa. He sent
out a representative to purchase, who not only purchased, but
bought claims and worked them ; and so that matter was set
at rest." '

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